1. Experimental Analysis of Behavior

2. Functional Analysis of Behavior
Two ways to classify behavior:
Structurally:
what are the components of the behavior; what is its structure?
What is the topography of the behavior
Functionally:
what is the function of the behavior? What is its purpose?
What is the behavior gaining the organism?
What is the behavior’s reinforcement history/

3. Response Functions
Think of behavior as a performance that follows a specific stimulus and results in a particular consequence:
S+: R C (Sr or P)
Can analyze behavior using 3-step analysis:
ABC
A: antecedents: what are the setting conditions/stimuli
B: Behavior: what is the structure/topography of the response
C: Consequences: what reinforcer or punisher follows the behavior
Determining the ABCs of behavior help determine the function of the response

4. Functional Responses Classes
But what is a Response?
Response (R)= an integrated set of movements or a behavioral performance.
Two classes of responses
Respondent
Operant
Functional Responses Classes
Response Class
Function
Controlling Event
Respondent
Elicited
Stimulus(event) preceding the response
Operant
Emitted
Stimulus or event FOLLOWING the response

5. Responses Elicited Responses: Emitted Responses:
No consequence controls this behavior
Classical conditioning
Often reflexive or innate behaviors (but not always)
Emitted Responses:
Operant behavior
Will have a reinforcement function (what does it get you?)
Discriminative function: Can come under discriminative control by a discriminative stimulus or stimuli

6. Stimulus Classes Stimuli have different functions, as well
Defined by common effect on behavior
Not defined by the similarity of the stimuli, but on their FUNCTION
Discriminative stimuli:
Serve as a cue for particular behaviors
Bring that behavior under stimulus control
E.g.: Stop signs result in a particular behavior
Reinforcing stimuli
Again defined by their function, not their similarity
Here we get a four-square of behavior
Reinforcement: positive and negative
Punishment: positive and negative

7. Motivation of Behavior
Context of behavior matters:
Stop signs:
if walking, typically don’t STOP at a stop sign
Driving: do STOP at a stop sign
Using Normal Theater as lecture hall: any problems with context of behavior?
Deals with setting conditions:
What conditions “set” the contingency?
Establishing operation: EO: (Michael, 1982): any environmental change that has 2 major effects:
Change increased the momentary effectiveness of reinforcement supporting operant behavior
Change increased momentarily the responses that had in the past produced such reinforcement
Abolishing operation: AO: decreases momentary effectiveness of reinforcement and momentarily decreases rate of response
Motivational operation (MO): any event that alters the reinforcement effectiveness of behavioral consequences and changes the frequency of the behavior maintained by those consequences

8. Conducting Behavioral Research from a Behaviorist Perspective
Make use of basic tactics of research:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Correlational research
But: use Single Subject Designs rather than group designs!
Interested in behavior change in an individual
Use individual as own control
In ABA, important that behavior change is functional and clinically significant
Allows evaluation of small groups and individuals
NOT interested in the mean, but in individual behavior change

9. Single- subject designs
Also called single- case designs
research designs that use the results from a single participant or subject to establish the existence of cause- and- effect relationships.
does not provide researchers with a set of scores from a group of subjects
Instead: presentation and interpretation of results from a single- subject experiment are based on
visual inspection of a simple graph of the data
In experimental analysis, also statistical analysis

10. Example

11. Limitation
The results as presented do not represent a true experiment because there is no control over extraneous variables.

12. Phases and phase changes
A phase: series of observations of the same individual under the same conditions.
Baseline: observations when no treatment is being administered

13. 3 types of baseline
Stable level
Stable trend
Unstable data

14. Dealing With Unstable Data
The researcher can simply wait; occasionally, a participant reacts unpredictably to the novelty of being observed.
Consider the average of a set of two (or more) observations.
look for patterns within the inconsistency.
For example, a researcher examining disruptive classroom behavior may find that a student exhibits very high levels of disruption on some days and very low levels on other days.
E.g., days she has a swimming lesson

15. Length of a Phase
To establish a pattern ( level or trend) within a phase and to determine the stability of the data within a phase, a phase must consist of a minimum of three observations.
Why? Three points make a line!
Allows you to (hopefully) determine the direction of behavior change
May need more if data are unstable

16. When to Change Phases Wait: Don’t Wait: Stopping Treatment:
When the data in a baseline phase show a trend indicating improvement in the client’s behavior
a researcher should not intervene by introducing a treatment phase.
Don’t Wait:
If baseline data indicate a seriously high level of dangerous or threatening behavior.
Researcher probably should not wait for the full set of five or six observations necessary to establish a clear pattern.
Stopping Treatment:
If a treatment appears to produce an immediate and severe deterioration in behavior,
Stop the treatment IMMEDIATELY

17. Visual Inspection Techniques
Unfortunately, there are no absolute, objective standards for determining how much of a change in pattern is sufficient to provide a convincing demonstration of a treatment effect.
The most convincing results occur when the change in pattern is immediate and large.

18. 4 types of change Change in average level: Immediate change in level
change in average baseline rate and average treatment rate
Immediate change in level
Compare the last point in one phase with the first point in the following phase
Change in trend:
Compare the slope of the trend in baseline with the shape of the trend in treatment
Latency of change.
Compare the latency of change in baseline with latency of change in treatment.

20. 2- immediate change in level

21. Change in Trend

22. Latency in change

23. The problem with single subject design: Need to find a way to show causation

24. THE ABAB REVERSAL DESIGN
the majority of single- subject research studies use ABAB design
consists of four phases:
a baseline phase ( A)
followed by treatment ( B)
then a return to baseline ( A)
finally a repetition of the treatment phase ( B).

25. Effective

26. Not Effective

27. Limitations of the ABAB Design
The implemented treatment has corrected a problem behavior, and when the treatment is removed, the correction continues.
A second problem with an ABAB design concerns the ethical question of withdrawing a successful treatment.

28. Variations on the ABAB Design

29. B not working, introduce C

30. B not working add C
B= Graduated exposure
C= Reinforcement

31. MULTIPLE- BASELINE DESIGNS
Uses multiple baselines and multiple interventions (hence the name!)
Across stimuli
Across environments
Across individuals
Across behaviors
Eliminates the need for a return to baseline and therefore
Is particularly well suited for evaluating treatments with long- lasting or permanent effects.

32. Person1
Person2
2 different students

33. Yelling
Crying
2 different behaviors

34. School
Home
2 different situations.

35. Weaknesses of the Multiple- Baseline Design
Risk that a treatment applied to one behavior may generalize and produce changes in the second behavior.
E.g., Treating stuttering may help treating aggressive behavior
Or: getting a great “down” for your dog results in loss of the “sit”
Solution: chart and monitor behavior change in both
This could be good OR bad change
one behavior may show a large and immediate change, but the second behavior may show only a minor or gradual change when the treatment is introduced.
Floor and ceiling effects
Treatments may have different levels of effect on different behaviors
Can convert data to proportions to see if it is a measurement issue
The same problem can occur with research involving different participants with similar behavior problems.

36. Dismantling design Dismantling design
also called a component- analysis design
consists of a series of phases in which each phase adds or subtracts one component of a complex treatment
Allows one to determine how each component contributes to the overall treatment effectiveness.

37. Example

38. 5- The Changing- Criterion Design
The criterion level is changed from one phase to the next.
Add to, take away or change criterion
E.g., out of seat behavior:
Phase 1: 5 out of seats/day
Phase 2: 3 out of seats/day
Phase 3: 1 out of seat/day

39. Smoking Treatment

40. The Alternating- Treatments Design
Also called a discrete-trials design,
Two ( or more) treatment conditions
randomly alternated from one observation to the next.
No set schedule; subject doesn’t know which is coming when
E.g., scent enrichment in zoo animals

41. Example 1- Alternate weeks

42. Example 2- 9 cases for each method

43. GENERAL STRENGTHS OF SINGLE- SUBJECT DESIGNS
Conducted with only one participant or occasionally a very small (N~5) group.
Tends to be much more flexible than a traditional group study.
Single- subject designs require continuous assessment.

44. General Weaknesses Of Single- Subject Designs
Participant’s behavior may be affected not only by the treatment conditions but also by the assessment procedures.
Sometimes measuring behavior changes it
Draws attention to the behavior; subject alters behavior
Another concern for single- subject designs can be absence of statistical controls.
Can address this with additional statistical measures designed for behavior analysis
Typically included in EAB research; now seeing more and more in ABA research