1. Sports Psych Review

2. 9.1 Theories of Motivation
Self Efficacy (Bandura)
Beliefs in own competence
Influenced by 4 factors
Previous experience
Modelling
Verbal persuasion, encouragement
Interpretation of emo/physio arousal

3. Self Efficacy Research
Hochstetler et al (1985)
40 female cyclists
Grp 1: video of struggles, then task
Grp 2: video of success, then same task
Grp 1 found task much harder
Evidence for impact of modeling

4. Self Efficacy Research (cont.)
Feltz et al (1989)
Field study, hockey team
S-E correlated to team performance and increases as season progresses
Evidence for previous experience
Bandura and Banfield (1991)
Belief in EFFORT more than talent develops high S-E

5. Eval Self Efficacy strengths limits Successfully applied
Empirically studied
Strong predictor of performance
Must be combined with other factors
Some studies are only correlational

6. Competence Motivation Theory
Harter (1978)
Feelings of COMPETENCE are the primary factors in motivation
“Perceived Competence” predicts:
Cognitive outcomes (S-E, Control)
Affective outcomes (enjoy, anxiety)
Behavioral outcomes (performance)

8. Competence Motivation Theory
Challenging/realistic goals increase motivation
Unsuccessful attempts result in perceived failure, decrease motivation
Positive feedback helps raise perceived competence

9. Competence Motivation Research
Ommundsen et al (1991)
223 Norwegian male soccer players age interviewed
Low competence, low peer popularity = low persistence, low connection to team and low enjoyment
All resulted in low motivation

10. 9.2 Role of Goal Setting 3 types of goals
Outcome goals (ego goals): focus on winning
Performance goals (task goals): focus on individual performance
Process goals: focus on skill improvement

11. Achievement Goal Theory
Nichols (1984)
One’s internal sense of ability (task vs ego) is the central motivating factor
Task: skill mastery, high intrinsic motivation
Ego: win, low intrinsic motivation, higher stress/pressure and social comparison

12. Goal Setting Research Filby et al (1999)
Field experiment, soccer for 5 weeks
Grp 1: no goals
Grp 2: outcome goals
Grp 3: process goals
Grp 4: outcome and process goals
Grp 5: outcome, performance and process goals
Results: grps 4 and 5 outperformed others

13. Ntoumanis et al (1999)
Task: better problem solvers, coping strategies and social support
Ego: emotion focused problem solvers, negative feelings, increased concern over personal mistakes

14. 4 Reasons Why Goal Work 1. Goals direct attention
2. Goals help energize
3. Goals affect persistence
4. Goals lead to the discovery of strategies of achievement

15. 9.3 Arousal, Anxiety and Performance
Gould (2000)
Athletic performance reflects close coordination between mind and body
Arousal: physio activity
Anxiety: negative emotional state
Cognitive: negative thoughts
Somatic: body’s stress reaction
State: apprehension, nervousness
Trait: perceived threat when none exists

16. The Inverted U Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)

17. Inverted U Research Oxendine (1970)
Nature of skill affects optimal arousal levels

18. Klavora (1998) 95 male HS basketball players
Pregame anxiety measured by test
Results: moderate pregame anxiety was better than high/low anxiety for optimal performance

19. (Fazey & Hardy, 1988) Catastrophe Model
When anxiety level exceeds the optimal level drop in performance is dramatic, not gradual

20. Eval Inverted U strengths limits Successful application in sports
Predictive value
Can help explain poor performance
No clear explanation as to why this happens
Too general
Does not account for individual factors
Theory can clearly explain the origin of arousal
Does not account for S-E and other cognitive factors

21. Optimal Arousal Theory (IZOF)
Hanin (1997): Top athletes have own, individual zone of optimal anxiety (IZOF)
IZOF is unique to all athletes
When arousal level and cognitive anxiety level meet result is peak performance

22. IZOF Research Raglin & Morris ((1994) Amnesi (1998)
College V-ball players reached IZOF vs high quality opponents but not vs low quality opponents
Evidence for upsets in competition
Amnesi (1998)
3 elite tennis players, established IZOF for each and taught anxiety reduction techniques
All showed increased performance

23. Eval Optimal Arousal (IZOF)
Strengths
limits
Successfully applied in sports
Empirically supported
Numerous examples at all levels of sport
Very time consuming to establish IZOF
IZOF is a moving target
IZOF is dependent on numerous uncontrolled variables
Cannot explain why IZOF is not necessary at all times

24. 9. 4 Techniques for Skill Development in Sport
Massed Practice
Distributed Practice
Continuous
Used to train “discrete tasks”: free throw, golf swing etc…
Goal: accurate and automatic performance under pressure
Variable practice is a combination of both; helps increase motivation
Interval
Used to train “continuous tasks”: swimming, cycling etc…
Utilizes modeling, repetition and feedback

25. Massed vs Distributed Research
Singer (1965)
Lee & Genovese (1988)
Massed vs Distributed practice in basketball
Grp 1: massed (80 shots)
Grp 2: distributed (4 x 20 shots, 5 min rest)
Grp 3:distributed (4 x 20 shots, 24 hr rest)
2 tests over 4 days
Results: practice with rest shows best results
Meta analysis of 116 studies
Distributed found to be BETTER than massed for motor skills in both MASTERY of skill and PERFORMANCE

26. Imagery The brain uses the same neural mechanisms to imagine movements as it does with actual movements.
Monroe et al (2000)
Where used: pre-competition
When used: during practice and competition
Why used: promote confidence and S-E
What is used: positive images, emotions
Martin et al (1999)
Applied Imagery Model
Cognitive specific: imagine the skill
Cognitive general: imagine strategy
Motivational specific: enhancing motivation
Motivational arousal: regulating stress
Motivational general mastery: staying focused

27. Imagery (cont.) Moritz et al (1996) Callow & Hardy (2001)
Studied the relationship between imagery & confidence
Elite athletes use imagery related to mastery and emotion
Correlational study
Callow & Hardy (2001)
123 female netball players
Studied the relationship between imagery & confidence
Low skilled players: motivational general mastery imagery
High skilled: goal achievement imagery

28. Eval Imagery strengths Limits Powerful technique
Empirically demonstrated
Supported by neuroimaging studies
Relates to S-E and performance
Not effective for all
Low confidence = imagined failure
Validity issues with self reporting results

29. 9.5 Role of Coaches Horn & Lox (1993) Self-fulfilling Prophecy
Coach forms expectations
Expectations affect treatment of athlete
Different treatment influences perceptions of competence
Athlete’s behavior\performance conforms to expectations

30. Coaching Behavior and Expectations
Weinberg & Gould (2007)
Categories based on high or low expectations
Frequency/quality of coach-athlete interaction: more given to “best” players
Quantity/quality of instruction: better teaching for “best” players
Type/frequency of feedback: better, more timely for “best” players

31. Role of Coaches Research
Chase et al (1997) Coaches’ efficacy beliefs and team performance
Alfermann et al (2005) Coaches’ influence on skill development
4 D-III women’s b-ball coaches, questionnaire
High efficacy expectations were reinforced by good preparation
Efficacy expectations were linked to skills
Coaches should focus on self-improvement and effort (controllable factors)
How do leadership styles (Democratic vs Autocratic) and feedback impact skills?
Study 1: 119 swimmers, questionnaires, 1 year
D = mastery climate, positive relationship to performance
Study 2: 212 youth athletes (individual and team), questionnaires
Team sports require more group oriented behavior from coach

32. 9.6 Team Cohesion and Performance
4 factors of cohesion
1. Individual factors: player identification with team
2. Team factors: communication, goals, efficacy
3. Leadership factors: culture, collective responsibility
4. Environmental Factors: size of group, pressure to perform

33. Cohesion Research GEQ measures:
Carron et al (1985) Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ)
Carron et al (2002) Relationship between cohesion and performance
GEQ measures:
Task cohesion: commitment to work together to achieve specific goals
Social cohesion: like and enjoy playing together and supporting each other
294 Canadian b-ball and soccer players given the GEQ
Results: strong relationship between TASK cohesion and success
TASK cohesion helps raise team efficacy, enhancing performance

34. 9.7 Aids/Barriers to Cohesion
Team Building, focus on team spirit and identity, player satisfaction
Focus on performance and process goals for collective efficacy: common goals, ownership
Democratic leadership style: open and approachable with players
Clear communication: consistent communication on goals, roles and feedback
Weinberg & Gould (2008)
Personality clashes
Conflict between task and social roles
Communication breakdown
Power struggle
Frequent turnover of group members
Disconnect on goals

35. 9.8 Response to Stress/Injury
Stress process in sport
Stressors: overtraining, injury, bad grades, coach/team drama, external expectations, competition
Stress Response: Arousal (somatic and psychological), anxiety, cognitive appraisal
Coping: Emotion vs Problem Focused coping strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)

36. Two Approaches to Stress
Holmes & Rahe (1967) Major Life Events
Lazarus & Folkman (1984) Cognitive Appraisal
Rating scale for life event (job change, death of a loved one, divorce etc…)
Adapted for use in sports (problems with coach or teammate etc…)
Athlete’s perception to situation in relation to coping resources is key to behavior
Imbalance between own abilities and demands results in negative feelings; balance results in positive feelings

37. Athlete Response to Stress
Gould (1993) Coping strategies in elite athletes to manage stress
Olympic wrestlers and National Champ figure skaters, questionnaires about managing stress
Results found 4 dimensions of coping themes:
1. Thought control: self talk, positive thinking
2. Attention control: concentration cues
3. Behavioral control: fixed routines
4. Emotional control: relaxation and visualization

38. Two Hypotheses on Role of Stress and Injury
1. Stress disrupts attention
Poor attention leads to increased risk of injury
2. Stress produce increased muscle tension and reduces coordination
Reduced coordination leads to higher risk of injury
Anderson & Williams (1999): negative life event stressors were the only significant predictor of injury in 196 college athletes

39. Cognitive Appraisal Model (Wiese, Bjornstal, 1998)
Primary Appraisal: what is at stake, challenge, threat, benefit or loss
Secondary Appraisal: how can you cope, options available

40. Athlete Response to Chronic Injury
Shuer et al (1997)
Aim: psych and coping responses to chronic injury
280 elite college athletes, measured coping responses, intrusive thoughts and avoidance coping
Results: chronically injured athletes scored highest on avoidance coping with females scoring higher than males, indicating high rates of denial

41. 9.1 Reasons for Using Drugs in Sport
Goldman (1984)
Asked 198 elite athletes if they would take a “magic drug” that would allow them to win gold w/out being caught
98% said yes; 52% said yes even if it would kill them in 5 years

42. Physical reasons Enhance performance Cope with pain/taining
Control wieght
Develop strength/stamina

43. Psychological reasons
Control emotions
Control stress response
Build self confidence
Gain mental edge

44. Social reasons Pressure from coaches/parents to perform
Peer pressure and need for acceptance
Financial concerns—scholarships, prize money, bonuses

45. Research on Drug Use Anshel (1991) Wadler & Hainline (1989)
Survey of 126 US athletes from 9 sports
64% aware of use on team
43% knew drugs were to enhance performance
Drugs taken for physical & psych reasons
Athletes may be more likely to experiment w/drugs due to 5 factors
1. pressure to reach next level
2. careers are finite
3. weight is always an issue
4. injury is always an issue
5. external pressure always exists

46. Narrative based case study of 11 Aussie athletes
Smith et al (2010)
Narrative based case study of 11 Aussie athletes
Said use of drugs was cheating, attitudes were shaped by:
1. legality of drug
2. drug’s impact on performance
3. early sporting experience/culture
4. commercial pressures
5. Individual desire to use
6. existing use of drug within the sport

47. Game Theory Why would rational athletes decide to take drugs?
“Prisoner’s Dilemma”

48. Applied Game Theory: Tour De France
Shermer (2008)
Payoff is high, motivation to use drugs increases
Some cyclists take drugs, win and aren’t caught
Other cyclists see this and follow suit
Penalties are stiff so a “code of silence” reigns
Climate is such that if you don’t use, you can’t even compete
Riis, Ulrich, Contador, Landis, Armstrong all won and have tested positive in last 20 years

49. 9.10 Effects of Drug Use in Sport
WADA makes the list of banned substances based on classifications
PED’s: steroids, EPO, HGH etc…
Recreational: alcohol, cocaine, marijuana etc…
Consequences for using
Legal: prison, fines
Ethical: banned from competing, stripped of wins, titles etc…
Health Issues: side effects, addiction

50. Effects of Steroids
Synthetic version of testosterone that stays in blood longer
Bio Effects: increased muscle, increase # red blood cells, shrinking testes, sterility, “masculinizing effect”, risk of heart disease, kidney and liver problems, cancers
Psych Effects: increased aggression (debatable) and impulsivity, mood swings

51. Steroid Research Olrich (1999) Athletes perceptions of steroid effects
Interviews with 10 bodybuilders, 5 had stopped using
Only 1 reported side effects or guilt
All reported psychological addiction
All reported short term side effects are not a deterrent

52. Case Study: Heidi Krieger (Andreas Krieger)
Victim of East German doping program from age 16
By 18 she weighed 220lbs with masculinization effects and mood swings, aggression and problems with sexual identity
Career ended with knee, hip and back injuries and she became clinically depressed and considered suicide
Had a sex change operation and is now known as Andreas Krieger

53. 9.11 Causes and Prevention of Burnout
Smith (1986): Characteristics of Burnout
Physical/emotional exhaustion
Feelings of low accomplishment
Depersonalization, apathy for sport
Detected by:
Maslach Burnout Inventory
Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)

54. Cognitive-Affective Stress Model (Smith 1986)
How thoughts and feelings influence athlete’s burnout
Stage 1: Situation Demands: demands exceed resources = stress
Stage 2: Cognitive Appraisal: threat vs. challenge appraisal of situation = anxious or excited
Stage 3: Physiological Responses: fight or flight due to appraisal
Stage 4: Behavioral Response: performance issues, cohesion problems, withdrawal

55. Burnout Research Gould (1996, 97)
Longitudinal study of tennis players found a number of personal & situational factors in burnout
Physical concerns
Logistical concerns
Social/interpersonal concerns
Psychological concerns
Results indicated a combination of social and psych stressors along with external demands contributed to burnout

56. Investment Model of Burnout (Entrapment Theory)
Raedeke (1997)
Assumes athletes consider costs and benefits of their sport
Burnout results from the imbalance between perceived costs and benefits
Commitment based on enjoyment: sport is rewarding of itself—no burnout
Commitment based on entrapment: sport is unsatisfying of itself—high burnout risk

57. Burnout Prevention
Cognitive Affective Stress Management Training (Smith, 1980) SMT
Mental/physical coping strategies designed to prevent burnout in 4 steps
Pre-treatment Assessment: interviews to assess the athlete’s stress response and appraisal
Treatment Rationale: athlete analyzes and gains understanding of personal stress reactions
Skill Acquisition: athlete learns relaxation, cognitive restructuring and self talk
Skill Rehearsal: stress is induced to allow athlete to practice new stress reducing skills

58. Stress Inoculation Theory (SIT) Meichenbaum, 1985
Athlete is exposed to increasing levels of stress in 3 stages, thereby enhancing his/her immunity “Learned Resourcefulness”
Stage 1: Conceptualization: athlete becomes aware of +/-- thoughts, self talk, imagery
Stage 2: Rehearsal: practice
Stage 3: Application: athlete encounters low stress and then moves up to moderate then high and applies what was rehearsed in stage 2
Prepare--control--cope--evaluate--overcome