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Sports Psych Review.

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Presentation on theme: "Sports Psych Review."— Presentation transcript:

1 Sports Psych Review

2 9.1 Theories of Motivation
Self Efficacy (Bandura) Beliefs in own competence Influenced by 4 factors Previous experience Modelling Verbal persuasion, encouragement Interpretation of emo/physio arousal

3 Self Efficacy Research
Hochstetler et al (1985) 40 female cyclists Grp 1: video of struggles, then task Grp 2: video of success, then same task Grp 1 found task much harder Evidence for impact of modeling

4 Self Efficacy Research (cont.)
Feltz et al (1989) Field study, hockey team S-E correlated to team performance and increases as season progresses Evidence for previous experience Bandura and Banfield (1991) Belief in EFFORT more than talent develops high S-E

5 Eval Self Efficacy strengths limits Successfully applied
Empirically studied Strong predictor of performance Must be combined with other factors Some studies are only correlational

6 Competence Motivation Theory
Harter (1978) Feelings of COMPETENCE are the primary factors in motivation “Perceived Competence” predicts: Cognitive outcomes (S-E, Control) Affective outcomes (enjoy, anxiety) Behavioral outcomes (performance)

7

8 Competence Motivation Theory
Challenging/realistic goals increase motivation Unsuccessful attempts result in perceived failure, decrease motivation Positive feedback helps raise perceived competence

9 Competence Motivation Research
Ommundsen et al (1991) 223 Norwegian male soccer players age interviewed Low competence, low peer popularity = low persistence, low connection to team and low enjoyment All resulted in low motivation

10 9.2 Role of Goal Setting 3 types of goals
Outcome goals (ego goals): focus on winning Performance goals (task goals): focus on individual performance Process goals: focus on skill improvement

11 Achievement Goal Theory
Nichols (1984) One’s internal sense of ability (task vs ego) is the central motivating factor Task: skill mastery, high intrinsic motivation Ego: win, low intrinsic motivation, higher stress/pressure and social comparison

12 Goal Setting Research Filby et al (1999)
Field experiment, soccer for 5 weeks Grp 1: no goals Grp 2: outcome goals Grp 3: process goals Grp 4: outcome and process goals Grp 5: outcome, performance and process goals Results: grps 4 and 5 outperformed others

13 Ntoumanis et al (1999) Task: better problem solvers, coping strategies and social support Ego: emotion focused problem solvers, negative feelings, increased concern over personal mistakes

14 4 Reasons Why Goal Work 1. Goals direct attention
2. Goals help energize 3. Goals affect persistence 4. Goals lead to the discovery of strategies of achievement

15 9.3 Arousal, Anxiety and Performance
Gould (2000) Athletic performance reflects close coordination between mind and body Arousal: physio activity Anxiety: negative emotional state Cognitive: negative thoughts Somatic: body’s stress reaction State: apprehension, nervousness Trait: perceived threat when none exists

16 The Inverted U Theory Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)

17 Inverted U Research Oxendine (1970)
Nature of skill affects optimal arousal levels

18 Klavora (1998) 95 male HS basketball players
Pregame anxiety measured by test Results: moderate pregame anxiety was better than high/low anxiety for optimal performance

19 (Fazey & Hardy, 1988) Catastrophe Model
When anxiety level exceeds the optimal level drop in performance is dramatic, not gradual

20 Eval Inverted U strengths limits Successful application in sports
Predictive value Can help explain poor performance No clear explanation as to why this happens Too general Does not account for individual factors Theory can clearly explain the origin of arousal Does not account for S-E and other cognitive factors

21 Optimal Arousal Theory (IZOF)
Hanin (1997): Top athletes have own, individual zone of optimal anxiety (IZOF) IZOF is unique to all athletes When arousal level and cognitive anxiety level meet result is peak performance

22 IZOF Research Raglin & Morris ((1994) Amnesi (1998)
College V-ball players reached IZOF vs high quality opponents but not vs low quality opponents Evidence for upsets in competition Amnesi (1998) 3 elite tennis players, established IZOF for each and taught anxiety reduction techniques All showed increased performance

23 Eval Optimal Arousal (IZOF)
Strengths limits Successfully applied in sports Empirically supported Numerous examples at all levels of sport Very time consuming to establish IZOF IZOF is a moving target IZOF is dependent on numerous uncontrolled variables Cannot explain why IZOF is not necessary at all times

24 9. 4 Techniques for Skill Development in Sport
Massed Practice Distributed Practice Continuous Used to train “discrete tasks”: free throw, golf swing etc… Goal: accurate and automatic performance under pressure Variable practice is a combination of both; helps increase motivation Interval Used to train “continuous tasks”: swimming, cycling etc… Utilizes modeling, repetition and feedback

25 Massed vs Distributed Research
Singer (1965) Lee & Genovese (1988) Massed vs Distributed practice in basketball Grp 1: massed (80 shots) Grp 2: distributed (4 x 20 shots, 5 min rest) Grp 3:distributed (4 x 20 shots, 24 hr rest) 2 tests over 4 days Results: practice with rest shows best results Meta analysis of 116 studies Distributed found to be BETTER than massed for motor skills in both MASTERY of skill and PERFORMANCE

26 Imagery The brain uses the same neural mechanisms to imagine movements as it does with actual movements. Monroe et al (2000) Where used: pre-competition When used: during practice and competition Why used: promote confidence and S-E What is used: positive images, emotions Martin et al (1999) Applied Imagery Model Cognitive specific: imagine the skill Cognitive general: imagine strategy Motivational specific: enhancing motivation Motivational arousal: regulating stress Motivational general mastery: staying focused

27 Imagery (cont.) Moritz et al (1996) Callow & Hardy (2001)
Studied the relationship between imagery & confidence Elite athletes use imagery related to mastery and emotion Correlational study Callow & Hardy (2001) 123 female netball players Studied the relationship between imagery & confidence Low skilled players: motivational general mastery imagery High skilled: goal achievement imagery

28 Eval Imagery strengths Limits Powerful technique
Empirically demonstrated Supported by neuroimaging studies Relates to S-E and performance Not effective for all Low confidence = imagined failure Validity issues with self reporting results

29 9.5 Role of Coaches Horn & Lox (1993) Self-fulfilling Prophecy
Coach forms expectations Expectations affect treatment of athlete Different treatment influences perceptions of competence Athlete’s behavior\performance conforms to expectations

30 Coaching Behavior and Expectations
Weinberg & Gould (2007) Categories based on high or low expectations Frequency/quality of coach-athlete interaction: more given to “best” players Quantity/quality of instruction: better teaching for “best” players Type/frequency of feedback: better, more timely for “best” players

31 Role of Coaches Research
Chase et al (1997) Coaches’ efficacy beliefs and team performance Alfermann et al (2005) Coaches’ influence on skill development 4 D-III women’s b-ball coaches, questionnaire High efficacy expectations were reinforced by good preparation Efficacy expectations were linked to skills Coaches should focus on self-improvement and effort (controllable factors) How do leadership styles (Democratic vs Autocratic) and feedback impact skills? Study 1: 119 swimmers, questionnaires, 1 year D = mastery climate, positive relationship to performance Study 2: 212 youth athletes (individual and team), questionnaires Team sports require more group oriented behavior from coach

32 9.6 Team Cohesion and Performance
4 factors of cohesion 1. Individual factors: player identification with team 2. Team factors: communication, goals, efficacy 3. Leadership factors: culture, collective responsibility 4. Environmental Factors: size of group, pressure to perform

33 Cohesion Research GEQ measures:
Carron et al (1985) Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) Carron et al (2002) Relationship between cohesion and performance GEQ measures: Task cohesion: commitment to work together to achieve specific goals Social cohesion: like and enjoy playing together and supporting each other 294 Canadian b-ball and soccer players given the GEQ Results: strong relationship between TASK cohesion and success TASK cohesion helps raise team efficacy, enhancing performance

34 9.7 Aids/Barriers to Cohesion
Team Building, focus on team spirit and identity, player satisfaction Focus on performance and process goals for collective efficacy: common goals, ownership Democratic leadership style: open and approachable with players Clear communication: consistent communication on goals, roles and feedback Weinberg & Gould (2008) Personality clashes Conflict between task and social roles Communication breakdown Power struggle Frequent turnover of group members Disconnect on goals

35 9.8 Response to Stress/Injury
Stress process in sport Stressors: overtraining, injury, bad grades, coach/team drama, external expectations, competition Stress Response: Arousal (somatic and psychological), anxiety, cognitive appraisal Coping: Emotion vs Problem Focused coping strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)

36 Two Approaches to Stress
Holmes & Rahe (1967) Major Life Events Lazarus & Folkman (1984) Cognitive Appraisal Rating scale for life event (job change, death of a loved one, divorce etc…) Adapted for use in sports (problems with coach or teammate etc…) Athlete’s perception to situation in relation to coping resources is key to behavior Imbalance between own abilities and demands results in negative feelings; balance results in positive feelings

37 Athlete Response to Stress
Gould (1993) Coping strategies in elite athletes to manage stress Olympic wrestlers and National Champ figure skaters, questionnaires about managing stress Results found 4 dimensions of coping themes: 1. Thought control: self talk, positive thinking 2. Attention control: concentration cues 3. Behavioral control: fixed routines 4. Emotional control: relaxation and visualization

38 Two Hypotheses on Role of Stress and Injury
1. Stress disrupts attention Poor attention leads to increased risk of injury 2. Stress produce increased muscle tension and reduces coordination Reduced coordination leads to higher risk of injury Anderson & Williams (1999): negative life event stressors were the only significant predictor of injury in 196 college athletes

39 Cognitive Appraisal Model (Wiese, Bjornstal, 1998)
Primary Appraisal: what is at stake, challenge, threat, benefit or loss Secondary Appraisal: how can you cope, options available

40 Athlete Response to Chronic Injury
Shuer et al (1997) Aim: psych and coping responses to chronic injury 280 elite college athletes, measured coping responses, intrusive thoughts and avoidance coping Results: chronically injured athletes scored highest on avoidance coping with females scoring higher than males, indicating high rates of denial

41 9.1 Reasons for Using Drugs in Sport
Goldman (1984) Asked 198 elite athletes if they would take a “magic drug” that would allow them to win gold w/out being caught 98% said yes; 52% said yes even if it would kill them in 5 years

42 Physical reasons Enhance performance Cope with pain/taining
Control wieght Develop strength/stamina

43 Psychological reasons
Control emotions Control stress response Build self confidence Gain mental edge

44 Social reasons Pressure from coaches/parents to perform
Peer pressure and need for acceptance Financial concerns—scholarships, prize money, bonuses

45 Research on Drug Use Anshel (1991) Wadler & Hainline (1989)
Survey of 126 US athletes from 9 sports 64% aware of use on team 43% knew drugs were to enhance performance Drugs taken for physical & psych reasons Athletes may be more likely to experiment w/drugs due to 5 factors 1. pressure to reach next level 2. careers are finite 3. weight is always an issue 4. injury is always an issue 5. external pressure always exists

46 Narrative based case study of 11 Aussie athletes
Smith et al (2010) Narrative based case study of 11 Aussie athletes Said use of drugs was cheating, attitudes were shaped by: 1. legality of drug 2. drug’s impact on performance 3. early sporting experience/culture 4. commercial pressures 5. Individual desire to use 6. existing use of drug within the sport

47 Game Theory Why would rational athletes decide to take drugs?
“Prisoner’s Dilemma”

48 Applied Game Theory: Tour De France
Shermer (2008) Payoff is high, motivation to use drugs increases Some cyclists take drugs, win and aren’t caught Other cyclists see this and follow suit Penalties are stiff so a “code of silence” reigns Climate is such that if you don’t use, you can’t even compete Riis, Ulrich, Contador, Landis, Armstrong all won and have tested positive in last 20 years

49 9.10 Effects of Drug Use in Sport
WADA makes the list of banned substances based on classifications PED’s: steroids, EPO, HGH etc… Recreational: alcohol, cocaine, marijuana etc… Consequences for using Legal: prison, fines Ethical: banned from competing, stripped of wins, titles etc… Health Issues: side effects, addiction

50 Effects of Steroids Synthetic version of testosterone that stays in blood longer Bio Effects: increased muscle, increase # red blood cells, shrinking testes, sterility, “masculinizing effect”, risk of heart disease, kidney and liver problems, cancers Psych Effects: increased aggression (debatable) and impulsivity, mood swings

51 Steroid Research Olrich (1999) Athletes perceptions of steroid effects
Interviews with 10 bodybuilders, 5 had stopped using Only 1 reported side effects or guilt All reported psychological addiction All reported short term side effects are not a deterrent

52 Case Study: Heidi Krieger (Andreas Krieger)
Victim of East German doping program from age 16 By 18 she weighed 220lbs with masculinization effects and mood swings, aggression and problems with sexual identity Career ended with knee, hip and back injuries and she became clinically depressed and considered suicide Had a sex change operation and is now known as Andreas Krieger

53 9.11 Causes and Prevention of Burnout
Smith (1986): Characteristics of Burnout Physical/emotional exhaustion Feelings of low accomplishment Depersonalization, apathy for sport Detected by: Maslach Burnout Inventory Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)

54 Cognitive-Affective Stress Model (Smith 1986)
How thoughts and feelings influence athlete’s burnout Stage 1: Situation Demands: demands exceed resources = stress Stage 2: Cognitive Appraisal: threat vs. challenge appraisal of situation = anxious or excited Stage 3: Physiological Responses: fight or flight due to appraisal Stage 4: Behavioral Response: performance issues, cohesion problems, withdrawal

55 Burnout Research Gould (1996, 97)
Longitudinal study of tennis players found a number of personal & situational factors in burnout Physical concerns Logistical concerns Social/interpersonal concerns Psychological concerns Results indicated a combination of social and psych stressors along with external demands contributed to burnout

56 Investment Model of Burnout (Entrapment Theory)
Raedeke (1997) Assumes athletes consider costs and benefits of their sport Burnout results from the imbalance between perceived costs and benefits Commitment based on enjoyment: sport is rewarding of itself—no burnout Commitment based on entrapment: sport is unsatisfying of itself—high burnout risk

57 Burnout Prevention Cognitive Affective Stress Management Training (Smith, 1980) SMT Mental/physical coping strategies designed to prevent burnout in 4 steps Pre-treatment Assessment: interviews to assess the athlete’s stress response and appraisal Treatment Rationale: athlete analyzes and gains understanding of personal stress reactions Skill Acquisition: athlete learns relaxation, cognitive restructuring and self talk Skill Rehearsal: stress is induced to allow athlete to practice new stress reducing skills

58 Stress Inoculation Theory (SIT) Meichenbaum, 1985
Athlete is exposed to increasing levels of stress in 3 stages, thereby enhancing his/her immunity “Learned Resourcefulness” Stage 1: Conceptualization: athlete becomes aware of +/-- thoughts, self talk, imagery Stage 2: Rehearsal: practice Stage 3: Application: athlete encounters low stress and then moves up to moderate then high and applies what was rehearsed in stage 2 Prepare--control--cope--evaluate--overcome


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