21 Toward Empire 1865‒1902.

21 Toward Empire 1865‒1902

Toward Empire, 1865‒1902 America Looks Outward War with Spain
21.1 America Looks Outward Why did Americans look outward in the last half of the nineteenth century? War with Spain What were the causes and results of the war with Spain? 21.2

Toward Empire, 1865‒1902 Acquisition of Empire
What were the various viewpoints about the acquisition of empire after the war with Spain? 21.3

Video Series: Key Topics in U.S. History
The American Empire Coup in Hawaii The Spanish-American War War in the Philippines Home

Roosevelt and the Rough Riders
Roosevelt wanted United States to establish itself as a world power War with Spain a step in right direction Extend influence in Asia and Latin America U.S. foreign policy in 1890s Fostered overseas business interests Strengthened navy Extended U.S. influence into Pacific Lecture Outline: Roosevelt wanted United States to establish itself as a world power War with Spain a step in right direction Free Cuba and expel Spain from hemisphere Focus for American people outside material gain Army and navy needed practice U.S. foreign policy in 1890s Fostered overseas business interests Strengthened navy Extended U.S. influence into Pacific Home

America Looks Outward Catching the Spirit of Empire
Reasons for Expansion Foreign Policy Approaches, 1867‒1900 The Lure of Hawaii The New Navy Learning Objective: Why did Americans look outward in the last half of the nineteenth century? Home

America Looks Outward U.S. expansion shifted after 1890
Involved island possessions Used as naval bases, trading outposts, and commercial centers Lecture Outline: U.S. expansion shifted after 1890 Involved island possessions Most already populated Used as naval bases, trading outposts, and commercial centers Not intended for settlement Colonies, not future states America Looks Outward

Catching the Spirit of Empire
04/06/98 Movement toward empire building Domestic concerns dominated the post‒Civil War years Foreign policy of isolationism 1870s – new interest in events abroad Internationalism began to replace nationalism Imperialism not of much interest at this time Lecture Outline: Movement toward empire building Domestic concerns dominated the post‒Civil War years Reconstruction Westward movement Economics Foreign policy of isolationism Avoid foreign entanglements Abolish foreign service discussed as an option 1870s – new interest in events abroad Internationalism began to replace nationalism Brought on by communication innovations Telegraphs, telephones, undersea cables Better informed about economic developments abroad Imperialism not of much interest at this time Annexation, military conquest, or economic domination Key Terms: isolationism: A belief that the United States should avoid entanglements with other nations. Imperialism: The policy of extending a nation’s power over other areas through military conquest, economic domination, or annexation. America Looks Outward 2 2 2 2

Reasons for Expansion New interest in expansion
04/06/98 New interest in expansion End of frontier Growth of factories and farms Worldwide scramble for empire Ideas encouraged expansion Evolution theory Missionary spirit Lecture Outline: New interest in expansion End of frontier Fears about diminishing opportunities at home Growth of factories and farms Needed new markets to purchase goods Worldwide scramble for empire Britain, France, and Germany had divided up Africa Other countries beginning to look at Asia Ideas encouraged expansion Evolution theory Give guidance to native peoples John Fiske - racial superiority of Anglo-Saxons Missionary spirit Expressed in Josiah Strong’s popular Our Country (1885) America Looks Outward 3 3 3 3

Foreign Policy Approaches, 1867‒1900
04/06/98 Foreign policy varied by region Europe North and South America Pacific Expansionist foreign policy Pushed by Secretary of State Seward Seward’s Folly – Alaska Closer commercial relations with Latin America Venezuela boundary dispute Lecture Outline: Foreign policy varied by region Europe Promoted trade Avoided diplomatic entanglements North and South America Based on Monroe Doctrine Dream of annexing Canada or Mexico Hoped for trade Pan-American unity against nations of Old World Pacific Coveted Hawaii and other outposts on sea-lanes to China Expansionist foreign policy Pushed by Secretary of State Seward Vision of empire stretching south into Latin American and west to the shores of Asia Included Canada and Mexico Mexico City to be new capital Seward’s Folly – Alaska Purchased from Russia in 1867 Closer commercial relations with Latin America Secretary of State Blaine and Frelingheysen Negotiated reciprocity treaties with Mexico, Spanish-ruled Cuba and Puerto Rico, the British West Indies, Santo Domingo, and Columbia Obtain markets for American goods Bind countries to American interests Inter-American Conference in Washington – 1889 Promote trade Created Pan-American Union to exchange political, scientific, and cultural knowledge Venezuela boundary dispute Dispute with Britain over a boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana Tried to arbitrate the dispute, but Britain failed to act Sent diplomatic note affirming Monroe Doctrine U.S. predominance in the Western Hemisphere Denying European nations the right to meddle in its affairs British reply repudiated the Monroe Doctrine and rejected U.S. arguments for the Venezuelan boundary As United States prepared to enforce its decision, Britain changed its position Preoccupied with problems in Africa and Europe Peace treaty settled the issue America Looks Outward 4 4 4 4

The Lure of Hawaii U.S. desired Hawaii as a way station
04/06/98 U.S. desired Hawaii as a way station Many ships stopped there Missionaries arrived in 1820 Children of missionaries dominated Hawaiian political and economic life U.S. tightened connection granted Hawaiian sugar duty-free entry Hawaiian monarchy limited Pearl Harbor Lecture Outline: U.S. desired Hawaii as a way station Many ships stopped there Missionaries arrived in 1820 Advertised economic and other benefits Hoped to attract new settlers Children of missionaries dominated Hawaiian political and economic life U.S. tightened connection granted Hawaiian sugar duty-free entry Hawaiian monarchy limited No economic or territorial concessions to other powers Effectively made Hawaii an American protectorate Pearl Harbor Exclusive use of harbor America Looks Outward 4 4 4 4

The Lure of Hawaii (continued)
04/06/98 McKinley Tariff led to change Ended special status for Hawaiian sugar Hawaiian sugar dropped New queen – new constitution Queen Liliuokalani wanted to reduce white power 1893 – American settlers revolted Lecture Outline: McKinley Tariff led to change Ended special status for Hawaiian sugar American producers given a bounty as well Hawaiian sugar dropped Unemployment rose and property values fell New queen – new constitution Queen Liliuokalani wanted to reduce white power Wrote new constitution that gave more power to native Hawaiians 1893 – American settlers revolted Asked for U.S. assistance Troops sent in to quell revolution America Looks Outward 4 4 4 4

The Lure of Hawaii (continued)
04/06/98 Hawaiian annexation Rebels set up provisional government and attempted to annex Hawaii Investigation found Americans’ role was improper Republic of Hawaii and finally annexation Debate stretched throughout the 1890s McKinley - joint resolution Lecture Outline: Hawaiian annexation Rebels set up provisional government and attempted to annex Hawaii Annexation blocked in Senate President Cleveland withdrew treaty Investigation found Americans’ role was improper Cleveland restores Queen to throne but provisional government refuses Republic of Hawaii and finally annexation Debate stretched throughout the 1890s In favor – strategic location, might be seized by another country if not a U.S. territory, need to civilize and Christianize native Hawaiians Opponents – might lead to a colonial army and colonial problems, inclusion of “mongrel” race in U.S., and rule over area not destined for statehood McKinley - joint resolution Bypassed need for treaty of annexation Required only a majority of both houses rather than two-thirds vote America Looks Outward 4 4 4 4

America Looks Outward Lecture Outline:
Image: Map 21.1 Hawaiian Islands - The Hawaiian Islands provided the United States with both a convenient stopping point on the way to Asian markets and a strategic naval station in the Pacific. America Looks Outward

America Looks Outward Lecture Outline:
Image: The Last Hawaiian Queen - The first step toward American annexation of Hawaii came in 1893 when Queen Liliuokalani was overthrown. Hawaii was annexed to the United States as a possession in 1898 and became a U.S. territory in 1900. America Looks Outward

The New Navy Growth of navy Alfred T. Mahan
04/06/98 Growth of navy Growing fleets of European countries United States needed to protect interests in Caribbean and Pacific New steel ships constructed Alfred T. Mahan Overseas markets were essential Large merchant marine Strong navy Colonies Lecture Outline: Growth of navy Growing fleets of European countries United States needed to protect interests in Caribbean and Pacific New steel ships constructed Alfred T. Mahan Overseas markets were essential Market for surpluses of agricultural and manufactured goods Large merchant marine To move goods Strong navy To protect shipping Colonies To serve as coaling stations Could also serve as markets themselves Stepping-stones to markets in Asia and Latin America America Looks Outward 4 4 4 4

The New Navy (continued)
04/06/98 Mahan influenced secretary of navy Program of naval construction Bureau of Construction and Repair Design and build new ships Naval Reserve – 1891 First American submarine – 1893 U.S. gained offensive capability at sea 1889 – twelfth in world 1893 – seventh in world 1900 – third in world Lecture Outline: Mahan influenced secretary of navy Program of naval construction Bureau of Construction and Repair Design and build new ships Naval Reserve – 1891 First American submarine – 1893 U.S. gained offensive capability at sea 1889 – twelfth in world 1893 – seventh in world 1900 – third in world America Looks Outward 4 4 4 4

Discussion Question Why did Americans look outward in the last half of the nineteenth century? Lecture Outline: In the late nineteenth century, Americans increasingly looked overseas, influenced in part by the example of other nations and confidence in what their country could offer other peoples, including Christianity, commerce, and American values. Policymakers were sure that the nation needed a navy, colonial outposts, foreign markets, and a new foreign policy. America Looks Outward

War with Spain A War for Principle The Spanish-American War
African American Soldiers in the War The Course of the War Learning Objective: What were the causes and results of the war with Spain? Home

War with Spain Effects of war with Spain
Bolstered national confidence Altered insular patterns of thought Reshaped Americans’ vision of themselves and the world Strain of isolationism and antiwar feeling The war increased overseas possessions Gained colonies and colonial subjects Responsibility Lecture Outline: Effects of war with Spain Bolstered national confidence Altered insular patterns of thought Reshaped Americans’ vision of themselves and the world Recognition of United States as a world power Believed they had a special destiny Strain of isolationism and antiwar feeling The war increased overseas possessions Gained colonies and colonial subjects Responsibility Govern and protect new empire War with Spain

A War for Principle Cuba struggles - 1890s 1895 - Rebellion in Cuba
Ongoing rebellion against Spanish rule Depression of 1893 Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 Rebellion in Cuba Importance of United States General Valeriano Weyler Nicolau U.S. moved to support rebels Yellow journalism Spain and U.S. relations Lecture Outline: Cuba struggles s Ongoing rebellion against Spanish rule Ten Years’ War Depression of 1893 Damaged Cuban economy Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 Worsened depression and ruined island’s sugar market Raised duties on sugar 40 percent Rebellion in Cuba Importance of United States Cuban insurgents used propaganda to sway American opinion General Valeriano Weyler Nicolau New commander from Spain Ultimatum to rebels Reconcentration policy Moved native population into camps Destroyed the rebellion’s popular base Many Cubans died from unsanitary conditions, overcrowding, and disease U.S. moved to support rebels Yellow journalism Whipped up U.S. sentiment to favor Cuban independence Practiced mainly in handful of New York City newspapers Increased sales but did not cause the war Spain and U.S. relations Cleveland preferred Spanish rule Issued proclamation of neutrality Tried to restrain public opinion McKinley leaned toward insurgents Sent aid to find out conditions in Cuba Offered to mediate Key Terms: yellow journalism: To sell newspapers before and during the Spanish-American War, publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer engaged in blatant sensationalization of the news, which became known as “yellow journalism.” Although it did not cause the war, it helped turn U.S. public opinion against Spain. War with Spain

A War for Principle (continued)
Spain offered concessions Recalled Weyler and offered autonomy Spanish officers led riots in Havana Movement toward war with Spain Explosion of the Maine Yellow press published de Lôme letter Last chance to negotiate offered Teller Amendment War declared Lecture Outline: Spain offered concessions Recalled Weyler and offered autonomy Declared amnesty for political prisoners Released Americans from Cuban jails Spanish officers led riots in Havana Against new amnesty policy Shook McKinley’s confidence in Madrid’s ability to control the situation Movement toward war with Spain Explosion of the Maine Exploded in Havana harbor Blamed on Spaniards by public Current studies indicate it was an accidental explosion “Remember the Maine and to Hell with Spain!” Yellow press published de Lôme letter Spanish minister in Washington insulted McKinley, calling him “weak” Letter revealed Spanish insincerity in the negotiations Minister resigned and returned to Spain Last chance to negotiate offered President asked for appropriations to be ready for war, which was approved by Congress United States wanted Spain to declare an armistice, end reconcentration policy, move toward Cuban independence Spain did not embrace all terms Teller Amendment United States had no intention of annexing Cuba War declared Key Terms: Teller Amendment: In this amendment to the declaration of war on Spain in 1898, the United States pledged that it did not intend to annex Cuba and that it would recognize Cuban independence after the Spanish-American War. War with Spain

War with Spain Link to MyHistoryLab asset:
Watch the Video, “Burial of the Maine Victims” Lecture Outline: Image: Maine Burial - This photo of the burial procession of victims of the Maine was taken at Key West, FL, on March 27, Two hundred sixty-six sailors and marines were killed in the explosion in Havana harbor. War with Spain

The Spanish-American War
04/06/98 Beginning of the war U.S. regular army small, ill-prepared Problems of equipment and supply War over quickly Ten weeks Few Americans died in the fighting Many died from disease Lecture Outline: Beginning of the war U.S. regular army small, ill-prepared McKinley called for volunteers 1 million young Americans responded Most soldiers fought in National Guard units Identified with hometowns rather than national army Resented officers with too much authority Lacked military deference Problems of equipment and supply Weapons Regulars possessed latest Krag-Jorgensen rifles Guard units possessed old Springfield rifles Food and sickness War over quickly Ten weeks Few Americans died in the fighting Many died from disease War with Spain 5 5 5 5

African American Soldiers in the War
04/06/98 African Americans served in Guard and regular army units One-fourth of forces Four army regiments Volunteer army Black troops resisted segregation African American soldiers won 26 Certificates of Merit, five Congressional Medals of Honor Lecture Outline: African Americans served in Guard and regular army units One-fourth of forces Four army regiments Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Infantry and Ninth and Tenth Cavalry Had served in West against the Indians Not easily accepted in the East Some black soldiers did not put up with treatment Forcibly desegregated railroad cars Volunteer army State governments would not accept black volunteers, but McKinley intervened More than 10,000 black troops Black troops resisted segregation African American soldiers won 26 Certificates of Merit, five Congressional Medals of Honor War with Spain 5 5 5 5

War with Spain Lecture Outline:
Image: The Battle of San Juan Hill - Charge of the 24th and 25th Colored Infantry and Rescue of the Rough Riders at San Juan Hill, July 2, 1898, colored lithograph by Kurz and Allison, 1899 (above). The Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Colored Infantry regiments served with exceptional gallantry in the Spanish-American War. War with Spain

Image: African Americans in the War with Spain - Charles Young, an 1889 graduate of West Point, was only African American officer in the army during the Spanish-American War except for a few chaplains. War with Spain

How Did the United States Build an Overseas Empire in the 1890s?
Where and how did the Spanish-American War unfold? How did American territorial claims change between 1790 and 1900? What were domestic attitudes toward the new overseas empire? War with Spain

Image: One of the pivotal events in the Spanish-American War of 1898 and the conquest of Cuba was the capture of the blockhouse on San Juan Hill by American forces—including Col. Theodore Roosevelt’s cavalry unit, the “Rough Riders”—on July 2, 1898. War with Spain

The Course of the War Simple naval strategy Army strategy
04/06/98 Simple naval strategy Destroy Spanish fleet Damage Spain’s merchant marine Harry the colonies or coast of Spain Army strategy Defend the United States Invade Cuba and probably Puerto Rico Possible action in far-flung locations Joint planning Limited strategy Lecture Outline: Simple naval strategy Destroy Spanish fleet Damage Spain’s merchant marine Harry the colonies or coast of Spain Army strategy Defend the United States Invade Cuba and probably Puerto Rico Possible action in far-flung locations The Philippines or Spain Joint planning Limited strategy Blockading Cuba Arming insurgents Annoying Spanish with small thrusts by army War with Spain 5 5 5 5

The Course of the War (continued)
04/06/98 Changing strategy Commodore George Dewey captured Manila Bay June - Cuba invaded July - Santiago surrendered War lasted 113 days 5500 Americans died, only 379 from battle Lecture Outline: Changing strategy Commodore George Dewey captured Manila Bay May 1898 Put Manila and the Philippines within grasp Dewey idolized Portraits, songs, and poems June - Cuba invaded July - Santiago surrendered Puerto Rico occupied War lasted 113 days 5500 Americans died, only 379 from battle Accident, yellow fever, malaria, and typhoid killed most War with Spain 5 5 5 5

Image: Map 21.2 Spanish-American War, Pacific Theater – Commodore Dewey, promoted to admiral immediately after the naval victory at Manila Bay, was the first hero of the war. War with Spain

War with Spain Link to MyHistoryLab asset:
Read the Document, “Atlantic Monthly, ‘The War with Spain, and After’ (1898)” Lecture Outline: Image: Map 21.3 Spanish-American War, Caribbean Theater - President McKinley set up a “war room” in the White House, following the action on giant maps with red and white marking pins. War with Spain

Discussion Question What were the causes and results of the war with Spain? Lecture Outline: In 1898 the United States fought a war with Spain, which resulted in a quick victory and enormous changes for American society, including a larger military, an increased role for the federal government in American life, the acquisition of colonies, and increased power for the office of the presidency. War with Spain

Acquisition of Empire The Treaty of Paris Debate
Guerrilla Warfare in the Philippines The Open Door Learning Objective: What were the various viewpoints about the acquisition of empire after the war with Spain? Home

Acquisition of Empire Negotiations Public opinion
04/06/98 Negotiations Fate of the Philippines was the thorniest issue at the peace negotiations Public opinion Religious and missionary organizations Merchants and industrialists Many Americans – fruits of war December 1898 ‒ Treaty of Paris Cuba independent U.S. acquired territory Lecture Outline: Negotiations Fate of the Philippines was the thorniest issue at the peace negotiations Could not give islands back to Spain Public opinion would not allow this option Did not want rival nations to acquire islands Germany, Japan, Britain, and Russia all interested in acquiring them Independence for Philippines Racist belief that the Filipinos were not ready for independence American protectorate Would bring responsibility without control Annexation the only option Future independence Public opinion Religious and missionary organizations Wanted to Christianize them Already mostly Roman Catholic Merchants and industrialists Key to China market and wealth of Asia Many Americans – fruits of war December 1898 – Treaty of Paris Cuba independent U.S. acquired territory Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines U.S. paid $20 million to Spain Key Terms: Treaty of Paris: Treaty in December 1898 ending the Spanish-American War. Under its terms, Spain recognized Cuba’s independence, assumed the Cuban debt, and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. Acquisition of Empire 12 13 13 13

The Treaty of Paris Debate
04/06/98 Anti-Imperialist League Opponents from all areas Violated principle of self-determination and independence Cheap labor feared by labor leaders Race issue Not needed for trade Domestic issues more important Senate ratified Treaty U.S. became colonial empire Lecture Outline: Anti-Imperialist League Opponents from all areas Industrialist Andrew Carnegie, reformer Jane Addams, labor leader Samuel Gompers, author Mark Twain Membership centered in New England, less popular in West and South More Democrats than Republicans Violated principle of self-determination and independence Tyranny abroad could lead to tyranny at home Republican ideals not reconciled with subjugating people abroad Cheap labor feared by labor leaders Undercut wages and the union movement Race issue Assimilation would mix races Not needed for trade Do not have to own people to trade with them – William Jennings Bryan Domestic issues more important Treatment of Native Americans and blacks Senate ratified Treaty U.S. became colonial empire Key Terms: Anti-Imperialist League: An organization formed in 1898 to fight the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War. Members opposed acquiring overseas colonies, believing it would subvert American ideals and institutions. Membership centered in New England; the cause was less popular in the South and West. Acquisition of Empire 5 5 5 5

Acquisition of Empire Link to MyHistoryLab asset:
Read the Document, “Carl Schurz, Platform of the American Anti-Imperialist League (1899)” Lecture Outline: Image: Carl Schurz and the other anti-imperialists of the American Anti-Imperialist League lobbied President McKinley not to annex the Philippines after the Spanish-American War in These anti-imperialists argued that the annexation of the Philippines would violate republican principles. Acquisition of Empire

Guerrilla Warfare in the Philippines
04/06/98 Philippine-American War Led by Emilio Aguinaldo; from 1898‒1902 Filipinos used guerilla war tactics U.S. adopted tactics Spanish used in Cuba Taft named civilian governor Local self-government permitted Changes made Schedule established for independence Philippines independent July 4, 1946 Lecture Outline: Philippine-American War Led by Emilio Aguinaldo; from 1898‒1902 Early organizer of resistance to Spain Worked with Americans during Spanish-American War Established local governments with provincial governors in liberated areas Filipinos used guerilla war tactics U.S. adopted tactics Spanish used in Cuba Atrocities committed by both sides Americans burned all houses in a district Tortured people and executed prisoners Moved people into “zones”/camps Taft named civilian governor Local self-government permitted Changes made New schools and vocational training Built roads and bridges Reformed judiciary and restructured tax system Sanitation and vaccination programs Schedule established for independence Philippines independent July 4, 1946 Key Terms: Philippine-American War: A war fought from 1899 to 1903 to quell Filipino resistance to U.S. control of the Philippine Islands. Acquisition of Empire 5 5 5 5

Acquisition of Empire Lecture Outline:
Image: Map 21.4 American Empire, With the Treaty of Paris, the United States gained an expanded colonial empire stretching from the Caribbean to the far Pacific. It embraced Puerto Rico, Alaska, Hawaii, part of Samoa, Guam, the Philippines, and a chain of Pacific islands. The dates on the map refer to the date of U.S. acquisition. Acquisition of Empire

The Open Door China weak from warfare and rebellion Open Door policy
“Spheres of influence” Open Door policy Nations possessing sphere of influence would respect other nations’ rights in that sphere Boxer Rebellion Nationalists tried to oust foreigners from China Lecture Outline: China weak from warfare and rebellion “Spheres of influence” Divisions of China created by Japan, Britain, France, Germany, and Russia China forced to give concessions – exclusive rights to develop particular areas Threatened American hopes for trade Open Door policy Nations possessing sphere of influence would respect other nations’ rights in that sphere Chinese government could still collect tariff duties Nations would not discriminate against others in levying dues and rates Would allow America to retain commercial advantages it might lose if China were partitioned into spheres of influence Also an attempt to preserve national authority for Chinese Secretary of State John Hay sent diplomatic notes to other countries, asking them to join U.S. in policy Not accepted by all powers, though Hay announced offer had been accepted by all Boxer Rebellion Nationalists tried to oust foreigners from China Rebellion led by secret group called Boxers Troops sent to lift the siege From United States, Britain, Germany, Japan, and others Hay sent second Open Door notes Affirmed U.S. commitment to equal commercial opportunity and respect for China’s independence Laid groundwork for later controversy with Japan over Pacific region Key Terms: Open Door policy: This policy established free trade between the United States and China in 1900 and attempted to induce European nations and Japan to recognize the territorial integrity of China. It marked a departure from the American tradition of isolationism and signaled the country’s growing involvement in the world. Acquisition of Empire

Discussion Question What were the various viewpoints about the acquisition of empire after the war with Spain? Lecture Outline: In the peace treaty ending the war with Spain, the United States acquired a new empire, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. For the first time, the United States owned territories overseas, upon which it did not intend to grant statehood. That fact, together with historical, racial, and other arguments, caused an angry discussion between those in favor and those opposing the new colonies. Adding to the debate was the outbreak of warfare between American troops and Filipino insurgents in the Philippines. Acquisition of Empire

Conclusion: Outcome of the War with Spain
04/06/98 Effects of war with Spain Teddy Roosevelt a war hero Set back the cause of civil rights for African Americans Confirmed Republicans as majority party U.S. soldiers stationed outside the country Lecture Outline: Effects of war with Spain Teddy Roosevelt a war hero Set back the cause of civil rights for African Americans Confirmed Republicans as majority party U.S. soldiers stationed outside the country 26 25 25 25

Lecture Outline: Image: Map 21.5 World Colonial Empires, Events of the nineteenth century increased European hegemony over the world. By 1900, most independent African nations had disappeared and the major European nations had divided the continent among themselves. In the East, the European powers and Japan took advantage of China’s internal weakness to gain both trading ports and economic concessions.

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