1. Academic Writing for Science Students

2. Approaching Academic Writing
Who are you writing for?
What are you trying to say?
How are you going to say it effectively?
In many ways Academic Writing is like any other kind of formal writing. What you are trying to achieve is the same – transmission of information and argument. The style however is slightly different.

3. Purposes of Academic Writing
Advance knowledge in a particular field
Replication
Rational inquiry
Ways to verify scholars’ claims
Scientific method (techniques for investigating phenomena)
Develop, test theories on how the world works
Source:

4. Differences Between Academic and Personal Writing
Academic Writing
Tells personal experience
Comments, evaluates, analyses
Non-technical vocabulary
Subject-specific vocabulary
‘I’ at the centre
‘I’ as observer and commentator
Information comes from the writer’s experience
Information comes from sources and references
Personal views and feelings
Evidence and arguments
Free form of writing
Follow conventions for citations
There are some differences between personal writing, as you might write a letter, and academic writing.
Academic writing is about justifying, exploring and analysing concepts. Statements must be supported with evidence, there must be a clear and logical argument.
Academic writing is more impersonal so try to avoid the personal pronoun, I. Try to avoid using phrases like I believe or I think. People are not interested in what you believe or think (well they are but not in that sense!) but rather in what you can prove and demonstrate. Providing evidence and citations for your assertions and ideas is almost as important as the ideas themselves.
Try to avoid phrasal verbs, it is not a story.
Never ever use slang terms.
This does not mean that academic writing has to be boring however, despite many attempts to prove otherwise!
Adapted from Crème P & Lea M, Writing at University, Buckingham, OUP, 1997, p. 105

5. Types of Academic Writing
Essays
Laboratory reports
Research proposals
Personal statements
Presentations
Reflective journals

6. Characteristics of academic writing
Never use a long word where a short one will suffice.
If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
George Orwell, “Politics of Language”
Clarity
Objective
Impersonal, usually formal
Unity
Focus on one topic only
Coherence
Achieved by consistent use of terms
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7. Formal vs. Informal Style
A) The inequity in the distribution of wealth in Australia is yet another indicator of Australia's lack of egalitarianism. In 1995, 20% of the Australian population owned 72.2% of Australia's wealth with the top 50% owning 92.1% (Raskall, 1998: 287). Such a significant skew in the distribution of wealth indicates that, at least in terms of economics, there is an established class system in Australia.
McGregor (1988) argues that Australian society can be categorized into three levels: the Upper, Middle and Working classes.
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8. Formal vs. Informal Style
B) Because only a few people have most of the money and power in Australia, I conclude that it is not an equal society. Society has an Upper, Middle and Lower class and I think that most people when they are born into one class, end up staying in that class for their whole lives. When all three classes are looked at more closely, other things such as the differences between the sexes and people's racial backgrounds also add to the unequal nature of Australian society.
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9. Clarity is more important than “sounding academic”
Which do you prefer?
A) Better evaluation of responses to treatment modalities depends on the standardization of an index allowing accurate description of learning behavior disorders.
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10. Clarity is more important than “sounding academic”
B) We could better evaluate how those with learning disorders respond to treatment if we could standardize an index that accurately describes how they behave.
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11. Passive vs. Active Voice
Passive voice, when overused, is weak
The actor of the verb is hidden, so is responsibility
Usually requires a “to be” construction
Find yourself asking “by whom or what”?
But it can be useful, if your topic doesn’t require a specific acting agent
Poland was invaded in 1939, thus initiating the Second World War.
Insulin was first discovered in 1921 at the University of Toronto and is still the only treatment available for diabetes.
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12. Task 2: Scientific Writing
Which of the two samples of scientific writing is better?
A survey designed at the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology (UWIST) offered two different ways of writing up the same piece of scientific information. The two authors were given neutral names, "Smith" and "Brown".
Read the two texts in Task 2 and discuss with your group. Choose your preferred text and give reasons.

13. What can you tell?
69.5% of the scientists who responded to the questionnaire ‘preferred’ Smith's version.
In all, 1580 scientists gave their views.
Not only did they prefer the easier passage, but they also found it ‘more stimulating’ and ‘more interesting’.
In answering the question, ‘Does one author seem to have a better organized mind?’, three-quarters said, ‘Yes, Smith’.
A majority of the scientists who filled out the questionnaire perceived Smith's version as more impressive, more credible, and more worthy of esteem than the Brown version.
WHY???
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14. A more impressive scientist…
Both passages have the same content and the order of presentation.
The use of technical terms is similar too – both passages use five undefined technical words (adrenal, androgen, corticosterone, glucocorticoids and hormone).
The difference is more in the handling of ordinary language than in the technical language.
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15. A more impressive scientist…
Smith's version
Brown's version
more readable
short sentences with direct, active constructions.
avoids unfamiliar words, and inflated roundabout phrases
good paragraphing
difficult to read
with long sentences, convoluted constructions
long words like ‘adrenalectomized’
all in a single paragraph
It was these differences in style, not the technical content and organization, which made readers feel that Smith was a more impressive scientist.
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16. Academic Writing for Science Subjects
3 C Principles
Correct
Clear
Concise
Reference:

17. Useful formula 1 Correct Verb Tense 2 Correct Voice pattern 3
Write clearly & precisely – e.g. Use effective Verb instead of Noun Phrase (as far as possible) 4
Write concisely – e.g. Use a prepositional phrase to express the less important idea

18. Correct Verb Tense Generally accepted theories >> present tense
Specific research papers >> e.g. “describe, present” or “deal with, investigate” >> past tense
Author+ Reference number or date+ verb of report ( past tense)+ that +Findings (Present tense)
Curie [1] showed that aluminum in seawater is regulated by a thermodynamic balance.
Reference:

19. 2a. Choosing between active & passive voice
The passive voice:
The actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance.
The active voice:
The actor is more important than the process or principle being described.
Reference:

20. 2b. The cases using Active Voice
A process description employs verbs that indicate a change of state, such as expand, rise, cool, and form.
e.g. Most metals expand and contract with variations in temperature.
Intransitive verbs:
stem from, originate (in), become
Research terms, such as “The study”, “The project”, “The report”, “The paper” >> use the active voice.
e.g. The paper aims to investigate the effect of X on Y.
Reference:

21. Use “Formal + Precise” verbs
3a. Effective Verbs
Use “Formal + Precise” verbs
Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms, which are usually of Latin origin and are more formal than their phrasal verb equivalent.
e.g. figure out --> determine
go up to --> reach
keep up --> maintain
Reference://taiwan.elsevier.com/htmlmailings/Author-NKUAS-Sam%20Yang.ppt

22. 3b. Effective Verbs Avoid “Verb + Noun” Collocation
>> use direct verbs
>> Workshop Ex: Task 3
e.g. Make an analysis --> analyze
Make a consideration --> consider
Perform a simulation -->Simulate
Have a discussion about --> discuss
Present a claim on --> claim
Reference:

23. 4a. Skills to write clearly
Avoid using unclear pronouns: it, this, that, these, they.
>>use “ This/ these + noun” to join ideas together.
e.g. According to a recent survey, 26% of all American adults, down from 38% thirty years ago, now smoke. This drop can be partly attributed to the mounting evidence linking smoking and fatal disease such as cancer.
Reference:

24. 4b. Skills for writing concisely
Reduce the relative clause into a prepositional phrase:
1. S+Be/V +(N1)+ which has +N2.
→ S+Be/V+(N1)+ with +N2.
Use a prepositional phrase to express the less important idea:
e.g. A further experiment was conducted which had more accurate results.
>> A further experiment was conducted with more accurate results.
e.g. Labor cost is rising and manufacturers have to relocate their factories to places where there is cheaper labor.
>> Due to rising labor cost, manufacturers have to… labor.
Reference:

25. 4c. Skills for writing concisely
Reduce the clause into participle phrase:
e.g. A current is sent through the material; therefore, the electrons are polarized.
→ A current is sent through the material, (thus) polarizing the electrons.
Prices rise; thus, the chance of hyperinflation increases.
→Prices rise, thus increasing the chance of hyperinflation.
>> Workshop Ex: Task 4
Reference:

26. 4d. Dangling Modifiers should be avoided
Have the same subject in two clauses:
e.g. 1. To calculate the temperature, the energy balance equation should be used.
--> To calculate the temperature, we should use the energy balance equation.
2. Based on the energy balance, we can calculate the temperature.
Based on the energy balance, the temperature can be calculated.
On the basis of the energy balance, we can calculate the temperature.
Reference:

27. 3 C Principles Concluding Remarks Correct Clear Concise
Phrases >> single words (能用單字表示，就不要用片語，)
Clauses >> phrases (能用片語表示，就不要用子句，)
Vary sentence structures, but remember: simplicity brings clarity (能用簡單句表示，就不要用複合句。)
If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out. (盡量用最少的單字表示一個句子。)
>> Workshop Ex: Task 5
Reference:

28. The Process of Writing Analyse the question
Check your understanding of the topic through reviewing the lecture notes or other information
Brainstorm
Collect more data
Organise the details
Plan – draft an outline
Write out the first draft
Rewrite it/ edit it
Whichever strategy you use, writing is a process with clearly defined steps:
1)Always begin by analysing the question. What does the question want you to do? Does it give any clues as to how you might do it? More on this in a moment.
2)Check what you already know. Does this give you ideas about how you might tackle the question? What gaps are there in your knowledge? Is there some useful sources you might be able to examine?
3)Think! This is really important. Just summarising current knowledge may well gain an acceptable mark but the really good marks come from putting in some good ideas of your own. Write down all your ideas however bizarre. They help to establish a pattern and may raise questions that need answering in your essay.
4)It’s reading time! You need to hit the library to understand current work around the essay question and find suitable quotes and data to back up your arguments. Check your tutor’s references and look at where the material you have is sourced from (where the author has got his or her information from). Try to be a little selective. Don’t just type the essay title into a search engine. Many websites are biased and the information on them is only as good as the author (i.e. often awful). Don’t forget the National Library. Readers tickets are easy to get and it is a fabulous resource.
5)Organise your thoughts and information before you start writing. Read over all your notes again. Think about how each piece of information helps to answer the question (be ruthless). Assemble your information into the order that you intend to use it in your essay.
6)Write an essay plan … and stick to it! There is nothing worse than a disorganised essay with no structure to it (well okay there are some worse things … but not many!). It is difficult to read and difficult to mark, therefore it generally gets a bad mark.
7)Finally we can actually write the essay. Keep looking at the essay question and make sure you are actually answering it. Many otherwise good essays get poor marks because they didn’t actually answer the question.
8)Re-read your essay. Check spelling and grammar. Spelling mistakes are relatively easy to avoid with a spell checker so leaving them just annoys the marker. Make sure you have answered the question. Make sure you have backed up your argument and that it makes sense. Be honest! The marker will notice!

29. Characteristics of a good essay
Focuses on the question/ task
Has a clear structure - easy to follow
Is well researched - evidence based
Adheres to academic conventions
Is correctly referenced
Is well presented – word limit, page numbering, margins, line spacing, font type, spelling …
Source:

30. Physics (Science) Essay should …
include diagrams/ equations/ graphs/ tables
keep the readers in mind
>>A reader has to be able to understand your writing
include technical terms but should not overuse jargon
>> define the terms
prefer clarity and accuracy over elegance
>> shorter sentences, no padding, no poetry
have a thesis statement or work from a hypothesis
>> have a clear objective
use some quotations
Source:

31. Analysing the Essay Question
Read the question carefully; check any unknown vocabulary
Suggestion: use colour pens or highlighters
Draw a box around phrases which instruct you how to tackle the questions
Outline /evaluate / analyse / justify / describe
Identify and underline the words or phrases which establish the subject(s) of the question
Underline with dashes, the refining words/ phrases which further limit the subject area
The essay question is the most important part. Failure to understand it or answer it properly is the main cause of poor marks. Read the question carefully and make sure you understand every word, use a dictionary if you have to.
It can be helpful to use coloured pens or highlighters to emphasize important words.
Split the question up into its component parts:
Highlight the words that tell you how to tackle the question such as evaluate, analyse, describe etc.
Identify word that establish what the subject of the question actually is.
Find the refining words that limit the subject area

32. A good introduction should:
Give an overview of the text.
Present the central idea.
Give reasons for writing the text.
Explain how the title will be interpreted.
Justify why the question is answered in a particular way.
Give the background to the main topic of the essay; explain the context.
Present a thematic statement that the rest of the essay will attempt to justify
Include some relevant quotes to interest the reader and set a ‘feel’ for the text.
Present a concrete example that the text will explain and elaborate on it.
Relate the text to other works in the same field.
Crème & Lea, p. 116.
The introduction and the conclusion are, arguably, the most important part of any essay. They set out and summarise the arguments you have made as well as making a first and final impression on the marker. The introduction is your opportunity to whet the appetite of the reader while your conclusion is an opportunity to ram home your arguments and leave them feeling that you have said something pretty important. From a markers point of view, a poor introduction rarely has a good essay concealed behind it. There are a number of tasks that the introduction may attempt to do, summarised in the above slide, but these can generally be reduced to ‘What’, ‘Why’, and ‘How’. What is your argument? Why are you making it? How are you going to make it?

33. A conclusion should:
Summarise the ‘answers’ to the questions the assignment set out to address.
Refer back to the question posed in the title and show that it has been answered.
Give a sense of an ‘ending’.
Point out what the assignment has and has not answered.
Put forward the writer’s view in the light of the evidence that has been presented.
Point the reader in the direction of a new idea.
But do not introduce new information.
Crème & Lea, p. 121
The conclusion has an important role in summarising your arguments and reminding the reader of the key points in your essay. The major roles are summarised in the slide.

34. Thesis AP Hamburger Method Conclusion Body of Your Essay
A Broad Statement on the Topic Question
Thesis: The Position you want to PROVE
The Organization Statement – 3 Points you want to prove that make up the (ESSAY) BODY
AP Hamburger Method
Thesis
3 Paragraphs 1) Topic Sentence 2) Facts 3) Facts 4) Facts 5) Analysis/ Transition
Body of Your Essay
Conclusion
Restate your thesis
Recap your points
Analysis/Conclusion

35. Questions to ask when checking Your work
Does the introduction act as a signpost for the whole text?
Does the assignment address the title question?
Does the text have a central idea? Is the idea apparent to the reader or do you have to search for it?
Do any points need more explicit ‘framing’ to provide a necessary context for a point raised?
Does the text raise questions that it does not answer?
Is there a sense of an argument developing?
Is the evidence provided substantial? Are the illustrations/examples relevant?
Do points, both within and beyond paragraphs, follow logically? Does the whole piece hang together coherently?
Why is this piece of information in the text – what purpose does it fulfil?
Is the use of subject specific terminology clear?
Is the ending satisfactory?
Worthington, P. Language & Learning Centre, UWA 2003
Checking your work is really important. Not doing so risks making foolish mistakes that will lower your credibility and lose you marks. If you have made the effort to write the essay it is worth spending a little time to make sure that everything is ok.

36. What is a laboratory report?
A laboratory report is a way of describing research in a standardized format.
A lab report will include the following:
An abstract
An introduction to the research topic
Methods section
The results of the research’
A discussion of the results
References

37. Why Reference To support your ideas with evidence
To show that you have read within your subject area
To inform your reader of the:
Range
Extent
Nature
of your source material
To show that you are able to select and use appropriate materials
To acknowledge that part of your work has been derived from other people’s works.
To indicate the approach you have adopted.
Adapted from: Trzeciak J & Mackay S, Study skills for Academic Writing (London: Prentice Hall, 1994), p. 56
Why bother referencing? After all, if the ideas in the essay are good, then they’re good, right? Well, not really. All ideas have a source, usually in something you have read or heard somewhere. Not to acknowledge that source is plagiarism, the theft of someone else’s ideas. This is, at best, careless and, at worst, dishonest. Deliberate plagiarism is not acceptable and will be severely penalised.
Referencing demonstrates to the reader that you have read within your subject making you seem more credible and reliable as a source of ideas. It demonstrates that you have evidence to support your claims and have not just made them up, and allows others to check that your claims are correct.
It is not always necessary to use direct quotes, you can paraphrase or report ideas, as long as you refernece them

38. Why cite? Readers can look up related works
Show that you are a professional and that you have understood what other researchers have done
Give credit to previous researchers
Avoid plagiarism

39. Citing and References Departments have their own guidelines
Two main styles of citation in common use
Harvard places references within the text (Smith, 2002) and a bibliography
Chicago uses footnotes or endnotes1
e.g. 1 Smith, D, “The Freudian Trap in Combat Motivation Theory” in Journal of Strategic Studies, 25(3), 2002
There are two major styles of citation that are in common use. Harvard style uses in text citations that refer to a bibliography, Chicago style uses footnotes or endnotes with complete citation information in them as well as a bibliography. Some departments or academic publications dictate which style you should use, but it largely comes down to personal preference. This is not an appropriate place for an extended discussion of this topic. Help sheets are available from the Language and Learning Centre, and many department handbooks have a section on how to cite effectively.
There are also good resources available on the web. They are easily found in most search engines.
The key point when citing is to be sure that the reference can be found easily by the reader. A minimum should be the name of the author or authors; the title of the work; the journal title, volume and issue number if applicable; the place and year of publication, the publishers name; and the page number or numbers of the quote or reference.

40. Cite what? What needs to be cited1
Quotations taken from a published source
Someone else’s theories or ideas (even if you have paraphrased them)
Someone else’s sentences, phrases, or special expressions (invented jargon)
Facts, figures, and research data compiled by someone else (not you or your colleagues)
Graphs, pictures, and charts designed by someone else
Source:

41. Cite for credibility Use credible sources (not Wikipedia!)
Avoid statements out of context, e.g.
All human minds start as a blank slate.
Instead, use a source:
John Locke developed the concept of tabula rasa, that is, that all humans start as blank slates and all experiences are learned (cite here). I agree/disagree because . . .
Clarity of style contributes to your credibility.
Source:

42. What the ILC cannot do We will not edit or proofread your paper.
But we shall work with you to help you become a better writer and editor of your own work.
We cannot tell you whether or not you have met your professor’s expectations.
But we can tell you, based on the topic and content you have presented, whether you have written the paper clearly.

43. Writing for science
The Craft of Scientific Writing by Michael Alley held in the main library: UL  -  T11 .A
Also see the downloadable work available through the university library catalogue: The Craft of Scientific Presentations

44. References
Practical Sharing of Paper Submission to Journals
Academic Writing - Why it is what it is
Essay writing for Physics Students, Angela Koch
Style and flow in Scientific Writing
Writing for Science and Technology Students, Effective Learning, SLDC
Writing about Physics (and other sciences), University of Toronto
Effective Writing by Pedro Pak-tao Ng, CUHK (H62. N ), Appendix 7 “Writing Clear and Effective Sentences”.

45. Any questions?
If you want more help, don’t forget the Independent Learning Centre has writing workshops and online resources !

46. Ilc.cuhk.edu.hk ILC offers a range of resources
Check out our resources links
Join other workshops
Make a booking for a 20 minute face to face consultation

47. What the ILC can do
Join our workshops on various types of academic writing, e.g. academic essays, reports, personal statements, application letters, etc.
One-on-one consultation with writing issues such as:
Focusing your ideas
Developing a thesis for an academic paper
Constructing an argument
Planning and structuring literature reviews
Targeting a particular audience
Using appropriate referencing styles
Learning how to edit for grammar and syntax
Developing writing strategies

48. “Keep It Simple and Short.”
3C + KISS
“Keep It Simple and Short.”
Thank You!