1. Chapter Consumers, Producers, and the Efficiency of Markets 7

2. Consumer Surplus Welfare economics – How the allocation of resources affects economic well-being Willingness to pay – Maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good Consumer surplus – Amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good – Minus amount the buyer actually pays for it 2

3. Table Four possible buyers’ willingness to pay 1 3 BuyerWillingness to pay John Paul George Ringo $100 80 70 50

4. Consumer Surplus Using the demand curve to measure consumer surplus – Consumer surplus Closely related to the demand curve – Demand schedule Derived from the willingness to pay of the possible buyers – At any quantity Price given by the demand curve – Willingness to pay of the marginal buyer 4

5. Figure The demand schedule 1 5 The table shows the demand schedule for the buyers in Table 1. PriceBuyers Quantity Demanded More than $100 $80 to $100 $70 to $80 $50 to $70 $50 or less None John John, Paul John, Paul, George John, Paul, George, Ringo 0123401234

6. Figure $100 80 70 50 Price of Albums The demand curve 1 6 The graph shows the corresponding demand curve. Note that the height of the demand curve reflects buyers’ willingness to pay 04312 Quantity of Albums John’s willingness to pay Paul’s willingness to pay George’s willingness to pay Ringo’s willingness to pay Demand

7. Consumer Surplus Using the demand curve to measure consumer surplus Demand curve – Reflects buyers’ willingness to pay – Measure consumer surplus Consumer surplus in a market – Area below the demand curve and above the price 7

8. Figure $100 80 70 50 Price of Albums Measuring consumer surplus with the demand curve 2 8 In panel (a), the price of the good is $80, and the consumer surplus is $20. In panel (b), the price of the good is $70, and the consumer surplus is $40. 04312 Quantity of Albums John’s consumer surplus ($20) Demand (a) Price = $80 $100 80 70 50 Price of Albums 04312 Quantity of Albums John’s consumer surplus ($30) (b) Price = $70 Paul’s consumer surplus ($10) Total consumer surplus ($40) Demand

9. Consumer Surplus How a lower price raises consumer surplus Buyers - always want to pay less – Initial price, P 1 Quantity demanded Q 1 Given consumer surplus – New, lower price, P 2 Greater quantity demanded, Q 2 – New buyers Increase in consumer surplus – From initial buyers – From new buyers 9

10. Figure How the price affects consumer surplus 3 10 Price In panel (a), the price is P 1, the quantity demanded is Q 1, and consumer surplus equals the area of the triangle ABC. When the price falls from P 1 to P 2, as in panel (b), the quantity demanded rises from Q 1 to Q 2, and the consumer surplus rises to the area of the triangle ADF. The increase in consumer surplus (area BCFD) occurs in part because existing consumers now pay less (area BCED) and in part because new consumers enter the market at the lower price (area CEF). 0 Quantity (a) Consumer surplus at price P 1 (b) Consumer surplus at price P 2 Demand P1P1 Q1Q1 Consumer surplus B C A Price 0 Quantity Demand P1P1 Q1Q1 Initial consumer surplus A P2P2 Q2Q2 B D C E F Additional consumer surplus to initial consumers Consumer surplus to new consumers

11. Consumer Surplus What does consumer surplus measure? Consumer surplus – Benefit that buyers receive from a good As the buyers themselves perceive it – Good measure of economic well-being – Exception: Illegal drugs Drug addicts – Willing to pay a high price for heroin Society’s standpoint – Drug addicts don’t get a large benefit from being able to buy heroin at a low price 11

12. Producer Surplus Cost and the willingness to sell Cost – Value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good Producer surplus – Amount a seller is paid for a good – Minus the seller’s cost of providing it 12

13. Table The costs of four possible sellers 2 13 SellerWillingness to pay Mary Frida Georgia Grandma $900 800 600 500

14. Producer Surplus Using the supply curve to measure producer surplus – Producer surplus Closely related to the supply curve – Supply schedule Derived from the costs of the suppliers – At any quantity Price given by the supply curve – Cost of the marginal seller 14

15. Figure The supply schedule 4 15 The table shows the supply schedule for the sellers in Table 2. PriceSellers Quantity Supplied $900 or more $800 to $900 $600 to $800 $500 to $600 Less than $500 Mary, Frida, Georgia, Grandma Frida, Georgia, Grandma Georgia, Grandma Grandma None 4321043210

16. Figure The supply curve 4 16 $900 800 600 500 Price of House Painting The graph shows the corresponding supply curve. Note that the height of the supply curve reflects sellers’ costs. 04312 Quantity of Houses Painted Mary’s cost Frida’s cost Georgia’s cost Grandma’s cost Supply

17. Producer Surplus Using the supply curve to measure producer surplus Supply curve – Reflects sellers’ costs – Measure producer surplus Producer surplus in a market – Area below the price and above the supply curve 17

18. Figure $900 800 600 500 Price of House Painting Measuring producer surplus with the supply curve 5 18 $900 800 600 500 Price of House Painting In panel (a), the price of the good is $600, and the producer surplus is $100. In panel (b), the price of the good is $800, and the producer surplus is $500. 04312 Quantity of Houses Painted Grandma’s producer surplus ($100) Supply (a) Price = $600 (b) Price = $800 Supply Grandma’s producer surplus ($300) Georgia’s producer surplus ($200) Total producer surplus ($500) 04312 Quantity of Houses Painted

19. Producer Surplus How a higher price raises producer surplus Sellers - want to receive a higher price – Initial price, P1 Quantity supplied, Q1 Given producer surplus – New, higher price, P2 Greater quantity supplied, Q2 – New producers Increase in producer surplus – From initial suppliers – From new suppliers 19

20. Figure How the price affects producer surplus 6 20 Price In panel (a), the price is P 1, the quantity supplied is Q1, and producer surplus equals the area of the triangle ABC. When the price rises from P 1 to P 2, as in panel (b), the quantity supplied rises from Q 1 to Q 2, and the producer surplus rises to the area of the triangle ADF. The increase in producer surplus (area BCFD) occurs in part because existing producers now receive more(area BCED) and in part because new producers enter the market at the higher price (area CEF). 0 Quantity (a) Producer surplus at price P 1 (b) Producer surplus at price P 2 Supply P1P1 Q1Q1 Producer surplus B C A Price 0 Quantity Supply P1P1 Q1Q1 Initial consumer surplus A P2P2 Q2Q2 B D C E F Additional producer surplus to initial producers Producer surplus to new producers

21. Market Efficiency The benevolent social planner – All-knowing, all-powerful, well-intentioned dictator – Wants to maximize the economic well-being of everyone in society Economic well-being of a society – Total surplus = Sum of consumer and producer surplus 21

22. Market Efficiency The benevolent social planner – Total surplus = Consumer surplus + Producer surplus Consumer surplus = Value to buyers – Amount paid by buyers Producer surplus = Amount received by sellers – Cost to sellers Amount paid by buyers = Amount received by sellers – Total surplus = Value to buyers – Cost to sellers 22

23. Market Efficiency Efficiency – Property of a resource allocation – Maximizing the total surplus Received by all members of society Equality – Property of distributing economic prosperity – Uniformly among the members of society 23

24. Market Efficiency Evaluating the market equilibrium Market outcomes 1.Free markets allocate the supply of goods to the buyers who value them most highly Measured by their willingness to pay 2.Free markets allocate the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce them at the least cost 24

25. Figure Consumer and producer surplus in the market equilibrium 7 25 Price Total surplus—the sum of consumer and producer surplus—is the area between the supply and demand curves up to the equilibrium quantity 0 Quantity Equilibrium quantity Equilibrium price Demand Supply Consumer surplus Producer surplus B C A D E

26. Market Efficiency Evaluating the market equilibrium – Social planner Cannot increase economic well-being by – Changing the allocation of consumption among buyers – Changing the allocation of production among sellers Cannot rise total economic well-being by – Increasing or decreasing the quantity of the good 3.Free markets produce the quantity of goods that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus 26

27. Figure The efficiency of the equilibrium quantity 8 27 Price At quantities less than the equilibrium quantity, such as Q 1, the value to buyers exceeds the cost to sellers. At quantities greater than the equilibrium quantity, such as Q 2, the cost to sellers exceeds the value to buyers. Therefore, the market equilibrium maximizes the sum of producer and consumer surplus. 0 Quantity Equilibrium quantity Demand Supply Q1Q1 Q2Q2 Value to buyers Value to buyers Cost to sellers Cost to sellers Value to buyers is greater than cost to sellers Value to buyers is less than cost to sellers

28. Market Efficiency Evaluating the market equilibrium Equilibrium outcome – Efficient allocation of resources The benevolent social planner – Can leave the market outcome just as he finds it – “Laissez faire” = “allow them to do” 28

29. Market Efficiency Evaluating the market equilibrium Adam Smith’s invisible hand – Takes all the information about buyers and sellers into account – Guides everyone in the market to the best outcome Economic efficiency Free markets = best way to organize economic activity 29

30. “How a mother’s love helped save two lives” – Ms. Stevens - her son needed a kidney transplant – The mother’s kidney was not compatible – Donated one of her kidneys to a stranger – Her son – move to the top of the kidney waiting list Should there be a market in organs? 30

31. Questions – Trade a kidney for a kidney – Trade a kidney for an expensive, experimental cancer treatment? – Exchange her kidney for free tuition for her son? – Sell her kidney for cash? Public policy – Illegal for people to sell their organs Market for organs – Government has imposed a price ceiling of zero Shortage of the good Should there be a market in organs? 31

32. Large benefits to allowing a free market in organs – People are born with two kidneys Usually need only one – Few people – no working kidney Current situation – Typical patient - wait several years for a kidney transplant – Every year - thousands of people die because a kidney cannot be found Should there be a market in organs? 32

33. Allow for kidney market – Balance supply and demand Sellers - extra cash in their pockets Buyers – live No more shortage of kidneys Efficient allocation of resources – Critics: worry about fairness Benefit the rich at the expense of the poor Current system: is it fair? – Some people - extra kidney they don’t really need – Others - dying to get one Should there be a market in organs? 33

34. Market Efficiency & Market Failure Forces of supply and demand allocate resources efficiently – Several assumptions about how markets work 1.Markets are perfectly competitive 2.Outcome in a market matters only to the buyers and sellers in that market – When these assumptions do not hold Our conclusion that the market equilibrium is efficient may no longer be true 34

35. Market Efficiency & Market Failure In the world – Competition - far from perfect Market power – A single buyer or seller (small group) – Control market prices – Markets are inefficient » Keeps the price and quantity away from the equilibrium of supply and demand 35

36. Market Efficiency & Market Failure In the world – Decisions of buyers and sellers Affect people who are not participants in the market at all Externalities – Cause welfare in a market to depend on more than just the value to the buyers and the cost to the sellers Inefficient equilibrium – From the standpoint of society as a whole 36

37. Market Efficiency & Market Failure Market failure – E.g.: market power and externalities – The inability of some unregulated markets to allocate resources efficiently – Public policy Can potentially remedy the problem Increase economic efficiency 37