1. C83SPE Revision

2. Theory of Planned Behaviour

3. Expectancy-value Models of Attitudes and Subjective Norms Behavioural beliefs Salient referents Good companionship Parents Weight control Grandparents Benefit overall health Siblings Take too much time Friends Have fun Schoolteachers Stay in shape Improve skills Get an injury Makes you hot and sweaty

4. Theory of Planned Behaviour in Exercise Attitudes Subjective Norms Intentions Behaviour Source: Ajzen (1985, 1991) Perceived Behavioural Control Behavioural beliefs x values Normative beliefs x values Control beliefs x power Perceptions regarding level of volitional control “I have control…” and “easy-difficult”

5. A meta-analysis (Hagger et al., 2002) have shown the TPB to predict more variance in exercise behaviour than TRA Attitudes and perceived behavioural control have a strong impact on exercise intentions but not subjective norms TPB is more effective in explaining intentions and behaviour that the HBM or PMT (Quine et al., 1998) Control beliefs predict direct measures of perceived behavioural control but vary according to population (Hagger et al., 2001; Godin et al., 1991) Summary of TPB Research in Exercise

6. Expectancy-value Models of Perceived Behavioural Control Young populations Adult populations Older populations Bad weather Age Being no good at it Costs Fear of heart attack Doing homework Fatigue Heart pain Going out with friends No time Having other hobbies

7. Interventions Based on the TPB Interventions based on the TPB should target attitudes and perceived behavioural control in particular (Hagger et al., 2002) Modal, salient beliefs i.e. beliefs about the behaviour that are important to the individuals in the target population and are most frequently cited should be targeted (Ajzen, 1991) Open ended questionnaires used to obtain modal beliefs (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) Persuasive communications should target these beliefs in putting forward the ‘case’ for exercise that is meaningful to the person Recent research suggests that an intervention based on the TPB is effective in an exercise context (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2005)

8. Interventions Based on the TPB Example of an intervention ‘script’ for a TPB intervention in exercise: “Participating in regular exercise has many benefits. You might learn how to play a new game or sport as well as improving your general level of fitness and well-being at the same time. Exercise can also be great fun. It does not necessarily cause injuries or make you feel uncomfortably hot and sweaty if you exercise as an intensity you feel comfortable with”

9. Self- Efficacy Perceived Controllability Perceived Control AffectiveCognitive Descriptive Norms Injunctive Norms Intentions Bozionelos & Bennett (1999) Rivis & Sheeran (2003) Attitudes Subjective Norms Extensions of the TPB Exercise Behaviour Activity Conscientiousness Personality Attitude strength/ ambivalence Moderates Attitude Eagly & Chaiken, 1993 Conner et al., 2003 Trafimow & Finlay (1996) Anticipated Regret Moral Norms Social support Courneya et al. (2000) Conner & Abraham (2001) Courneya et al. (2002) Moderates Trafimow & Sheeran (1998) Control Terry & O’Leary (1995) Armitage & Conner (2001) Normatively controlled individuals

10. Cognitive Evaluation Theory

11. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Classic Research on Intrinsic Motivation Deci (1971, 1972) College students offered money for solving problems, while another group of students just solved the problems without any external reward  unpaid students spent more time solving the problems in free time Deci (1971, 1972) College students offered money for solving problems, while another group of students just solved the problems without any external reward  unpaid students spent more time solving the problems in free time Deci (1971, 1972) Deci (1971, 1972) Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) effect of extrinsic rewards on children's’ intrinsic interest and motivation Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) effect of extrinsic rewards on children's’ intrinsic interest and motivation Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) Method  One group of children asked to draw pictures and rewards promised for pictures and rewards promised for the best drawing (reward condition) the best drawing (reward condition)  Another group drew pictures, without the promise of a reward without the promise of a reward (non- rewarded condition) (non- rewarded condition)  Another group drew pictures  Another group drew pictures and given a surprise reward (unexpected reward condition) reward condition) % time spent drawing

12. Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation Results suggest that IM is undermined by extrinsic, tangible rewards (‘undermining effect’ – Deci and Ryan, 1980) Results suggest that IM is undermined by extrinsic, tangible rewards (‘undermining effect’ – Deci and Ryan, 1980) “When a behaviour is controlled by events such as rewards, the behaviour only tends to persist so longs as the controlling events are present” “When a behaviour is controlled by events such as rewards, the behaviour only tends to persist so longs as the controlling events are present” Deci and Ryan (1987)

13. Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation Positive feedback i.e. encouragement, praise is important because it enhances COMPETENCE and SELF-ESTEEM Positive feedback i.e. encouragement, praise is important because it enhances COMPETENCE and SELF-ESTEEM Results are mixed: some show that positive feedback intrinsic motivations, others say it undermines it or has no effect (Vallerand & Reid, 1984) Results are mixed: some show that positive feedback intrinsic motivations, others say it undermines it or has no effect (Vallerand & Reid, 1984) Ryan (1982) suggests that positive reinforcement can assist ONLY when it is presented in an autonomy supportive way – avoid ‘controlling language’ like ‘should’ and ‘must’ Ryan (1982) suggests that positive reinforcement can assist ONLY when it is presented in an autonomy supportive way – avoid ‘controlling language’ like ‘should’ and ‘must’

14. Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation in Sports Contexts Vallerand and Reid (1984, 1988) conducted experiments using a stabliometer (motor task) Vallerand and Reid (1984, 1988) conducted experiments using a stabliometer (motor task) Task presented in either: Task presented in either: Positive feedback condition: “It looks like you have a very natural ability to balance and it shows in your performance” Positive feedback condition: “It looks like you have a very natural ability to balance and it shows in your performance” Negative feedback condition: “This is an easy task but your progress is quite slow. Try to perform as well as you can” Negative feedback condition: “This is an easy task but your progress is quite slow. Try to perform as well as you can” Results indicated that IM was higher among those in the positive feedback condition and this was consistent for males and females Results indicated that IM was higher among those in the positive feedback condition and this was consistent for males and females

15. Cognitive Evaluation Theory Intrinsic motivation, context (autonomous-controlling) and content of feedback (competence enhancing-not enhancing) combined to form a theory External locus of causality Intrinsic motivation decreases Cause of behaviour lies outside person Intrinsic motivation increases Cause of behaviour lies inside person Internal locus of causality Positive competence information Intrinsic motivation decreases Increased perceived competence Intrinsic motivation increases Decreased perceived competence Negative competence information Controlling Aspect of Reward Informational Aspect of Reward

16. Cognitive Evaluation Theory How the recipient perceives rewards is critical in determining whether their intrinsic motivation will be enhanced or diminished (Deci & Ryan, 1985) How the recipient perceives rewards is critical in determining whether their intrinsic motivation will be enhanced or diminished (Deci & Ryan, 1985) Rewards that are perceived to control an athlete’s behaviour (i.e., perceived as emanating outside a person) or suggest that an individual is not competent decrease intrinsic motivation Rewards that are perceived to control an athlete’s behaviour (i.e., perceived as emanating outside a person) or suggest that an individual is not competent decrease intrinsic motivation Rewards that are perceived as emphasising the informational aspect (i.e., perceived as coming from inside the individual) or provide positive feedback that supports competence increase intrinsic motivation Rewards that are perceived as emphasising the informational aspect (i.e., perceived as coming from inside the individual) or provide positive feedback that supports competence increase intrinsic motivation

17. Roles and role performance in sport

18. Roles and Team Performance A role is a “pattern of behaviour expected of an individual in a social situation” – c.f. group norms A role is a “pattern of behaviour expected of an individual in a social situation” – c.f. group norms Types of roles: Types of roles: Formal: within team e.g. marker, attacker, defender, captain Formal: within team e.g. marker, attacker, defender, captain Informal: e.g. spokesperson, team policeman, joker etc. Informal: e.g. spokesperson, team policeman, joker etc. Formal roles are important to cohesion and a key outcome is effectiveness of performance in assigned role (role performance) Formal roles are important to cohesion and a key outcome is effectiveness of performance in assigned role (role performance) Role performance is affected by three factors: Role performance is affected by three factors: Role conflict – inability to meet demands of assigned role Role conflict – inability to meet demands of assigned role Role ambiguity – a lack of understanding of the demands of the role Role ambiguity – a lack of understanding of the demands of the role Role efficacy – estimate of ability to perform to demands of role Role efficacy – estimate of ability to perform to demands of role

19. Model of Role Performance Formal rolesInformal roles Role conflict Role performance Role ambiguityRole efficacy Source: Beauchamp (2004)

20. Roles and Team Performance Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflict Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflict

21. Model of Role Performance Formal rolesInformal roles Role conflict Role performance Role ambiguityRole efficacy Source: Beauchamp (2004)

22. Roles and Team Performance The study also indicated that the effect of role ambiguity on role performance was mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002) The study also indicated that the effect of role ambiguity on role performance was mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002) Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflict Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflict

23. Model of Role Performance Formal rolesInformal roles Role conflict Role performance Role ambiguityRole efficacy Source: Beauchamp (2004)

24. Roles and Team Performance The study also indicated that the effect of role ambiguity on role performance was mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002) The study also indicated that the effect of role ambiguity on role performance was mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002) Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflict Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflict Emphasises need to promote high role efficacy and reduce role conflict Emphasises need to promote high role efficacy and reduce role conflict

25. C83SPE Exam

26. Specimen Exam Paper Format Answer TWO questions in total. ONE question from Section A and ONE question from Section B. Section A: Social Psychology of Exercise 1. Compare and contrast two social cognitive approaches aimed at understanding exercise behaviour. 2.What strategies can exercise promoters use to increase a person’s exercise behaviour? 3.What factors contribute to the development of eating disorders in sport and exercise performers? Section B: Social Psychology of Sport 4. How have advances in social psychological theory contributed to our understanding of the effects of stress and anxiety in sport? 5.How does cognitive evaluation theory help to understand the role of rewards in sports participation? 6.What factors affect whether the presence of an audience will facilitate sports performance?

27. Section A: Social Psychology of Exercise Question 1: Compare and contrast two social cognitive approaches to the understanding of exercise behaviour Source: Chapters 2 – Social Cognitive Approaches Contextual sentence Contextual sentence ‘Abstract style’ first paragraph – identify the theories ‘Abstract style’ first paragraph – identify the theories Define the TWO theories you have chosen e.g. HBM, PMT, TPB/TRA, TTM Define the TWO theories you have chosen e.g. HBM, PMT, TPB/TRA, TTM Define their common elements; Define their common elements; For all theories: For all theories: Identify ‘what’ – key variables Identify ‘what’ – key variables Show ‘how’ - mechanisms (paths) to exercise behaviour Show ‘how’ - mechanisms (paths) to exercise behaviour Certain theories: Certain theories: Similar variables e.g. self-efficacy in PMT, and control in TPB Similar variables e.g. self-efficacy in PMT, and control in TPB Define and contrast their differences Define and contrast their differences Differences in their purpose Differences in their purpose E.g. Stage theories like TTM show how people’s behaviour changes in ‘stages’, TPB, HBM, PMT focus on motivation to engage in specific bouts of behaviour E.g. Stage theories like TTM show how people’s behaviour changes in ‘stages’, TPB, HBM, PMT focus on motivation to engage in specific bouts of behaviour Differences in their ability to predict exercise behaviour Differences in their ability to predict exercise behaviour

28. Section A: Social Psychology of Exercise Question 2: What strategies can exercise promoters use to increase a person’s exercise behaviour? Source: Chapters 2 & 3 – Theories of intention and implementation Identify the strategies and compare them, don’t just describe Identify the strategies and compare them, don’t just describe Attitudinal/control-based interventions (changing beliefs/intentions) Attitudinal/control-based interventions (changing beliefs/intentions) Implementation intentions (increasing int-beh link) Implementation intentions (increasing int-beh link) Decision making – cost vs. benefit, changes beliefs (TTM) Decision making – cost vs. benefit, changes beliefs (TTM) Motivational interviewing – changes intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy, individualised approach Motivational interviewing – changes intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy, individualised approach

29. Section A: Social Psychology of Exercise Question 3: What factors contribute to the development of eating disorders in sport and exercise performers? Source: Chapter 4 – The physical self, eating disorders and activity disorders Identify the factors and evaluate them, don’t just describe Identify the factors and evaluate them, don’t just describe Dispositions – personality – obligatory behaviours Dispositions – personality – obligatory behaviours Coach and peer pressure Coach and peer pressure Demands of sport e.g. weight restrictions c.f. boxing Demands of sport e.g. weight restrictions c.f. boxing Sociocultural factors – e.g. media, sport climate Sociocultural factors – e.g. media, sport climate Performance demands – leanness and performance Performance demands – leanness and performance Judging criteria e.g. bodybuilding, gymnastics, skating etc. Judging criteria e.g. bodybuilding, gymnastics, skating etc. Give some idea as how they can be counteracted e.g. CBT, recommendations of coaches Give some idea as how they can be counteracted e.g. CBT, recommendations of coaches

30. Section B: Social Psychology of Sport Question 4: How have advances in social psychological theory contributed to our understanding of the effects of stress and anxiety in sport? Source: Chapter 6 – Emotion and anxiety in sport Introduce theories Introduce theories Discuss the ‘evolution’ of the anxiety theories Discuss the ‘evolution’ of the anxiety theories Drive theory → Inverted ‘U’/Optimal arousal → Facilitative_Debilitative Anxiety/Catastrophe theory Drive theory → Inverted ‘U’/Optimal arousal → Facilitative_Debilitative Anxiety/Catastrophe theory Give an ‘opinion’ – which best describes our understanding? Give an ‘opinion’ – which best describes our understanding? Mention: Yerkes and Dodson, Martens, Jones and Swain, Hardy Mention: Yerkes and Dodson, Martens, Jones and Swain, Hardy

31. Section B: Social Psychology of Sport Question 5: How does cognitive evaluation theory help to understand the role of rewards in sports participation? Source: Chapter 5 – Motivation in sport Describe important aspects of CET – intrinsic motivation, external rewards, undermining effect, context of reward, competence Describe important aspects of CET – intrinsic motivation, external rewards, undermining effect, context of reward, competence Discuss ‘optimal’ situation – reward should have an internal locus of causality and ‘informational’ feedback associated with it Discuss ‘optimal’ situation – reward should have an internal locus of causality and ‘informational’ feedback associated with it Conclude: CET rewards are most effective if they are not the sole purpose of the activity and they are presented with positive feedback Conclude: CET rewards are most effective if they are not the sole purpose of the activity and they are presented with positive feedback Mention: Deci and Ryan; Vallerand Mention: Deci and Ryan; Vallerand

32. Section B: Social Psychology of Sport Question 6: What factors affect whether the presence of an audience will facilitate sports performance? Source: Chapter 7 – Group processes in sport Factors affecting the social facilitation effect Factors affecting the social facilitation effect Level of sports performer Level of sports performer Whether the skill has been performed before and is ‘well learned’ i.e. ‘reinforces a dominant response’ Whether the skill has been performed before and is ‘well learned’ i.e. ‘reinforces a dominant response’ Evaluation apprehension vs mere presence Evaluation apprehension vs mere presence Cognitive vs drive explanations of social facilitation Cognitive vs drive explanations of social facilitation Nature of audience – knowledge, partisan etc. Nature of audience – knowledge, partisan etc. Also: Location of activity – home vs. away matches Also: Location of activity – home vs. away matches Mention – Tripplett, Zajonc, Cottrell, Carron, Latané Mention – Tripplett, Zajonc, Cottrell, Carron, Latané