1. Hydrology Basics We need to review fundamental information about physical properties and their units. We need to review fundamental information about physical properties and their units.

2. Vectors 1: Velocity A scalar is a quantity with a size, for example mass or length A vector has a size (magnitude) and a direction. For example, at the beginning of the Winter Break, our car had an average speed of 61.39 miles per hour, and a direction, South. The combination of these two properties, speed and direction, is called Velocity http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/average-velocity-d_1392.html velocity is the rate and direction of change in position of an object.

3. Vector Components Vectors can be broken down into components For example in two dimensions, we can define two mutually perpendicular axes in convenient directions, and then calculate the magnitude in each direction

4. Example Vector Components A folded sandstone layer is exposed along the coast of Lake Michigan. In some places it is vertical, on others gently dipping. Which surface is struck by a greater wave force?

5. Vectors 2: Acceleration. Acceleration is the change in Velocity during some small time interval. Notice that either speed or direction, or both, may change. For example, falling objects are accelerated by gravitational attraction, g. In English units, the speed of falling objects increases by about g = 32.2 feet/second every second, written g = 32.2 ft/sec 2

6. SI Units Most scientists and engineers try to avoid English units, preferring instead SI units. For example, in SI units, the speed of falling objects increases by about 9.81 meters/second every second, written g = 9.81 m/sec 2 Unfortunately, in Hydrology our clients are mostly civilians, who expect answers in English units. We must learn to use both. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units

7. What’s in it for me? Hydrologists will take 1/5 th of GS jobs. Petroleum Geologists make more money, 127K vs. 80K, but have much less job security during economic downturns. Hydrologists have much greater responsibility. When a geologist makes a mistake, the bottom line suffers. When a hydrologist makes a mistake, people suffer. http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos312.htm

8. Issaquah Creek Flood, WA http://www.issaquahpress.com/tag/howard-hanson-damhttp://www.issaquahpress.com/tag/howard-hanson-dam/

9. What does a Hydrologist do? Hydrologists provide numbers to engineers and civil authorities. They ask, for example: “When will the crest of the flood arrive, and how high will it be?” “When will the contaminant plume arrive at our municipal water supply? http://www.weitzlux.com/dupont-plume_1961330.html

10. Data and Conversion Factors In your work as a hydrologist, you will be scrounging for data from many sources. It won’t always be in the units you want. To convert from one unit to another by using conversion factors. Conversion Factors involve multiplication by one, nothing changes 1 foot = 12 inches so 1 foot = 1 12 “ http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nj/nwis/current/?type=flow http://climate.rutgers.edu/njwxnet/dataviewer- netpt.php?yr=2010&mo=12&dy=1&qc=&hr=10&element_id%5B%5D=24&states=NJ&newdc=1

11. Example Water is flowing at a velocity of 30 meters per second from a spillway outlet. What is this speed in feet per second? Steps: (1) write down the value you have, then (2) select a conversion factor and write it as a fraction so the unit you want to get rid of is on the opposite side, and cancel. (1) (2) 30 meters x 3.281 feet = 98.61 feet second meter second

12. Flow Rate The product of velocity and area is a flow rate Vel [m/sec] x Area [meters 2 ] = Flow Rate [m 3 /sec] Notice that flow rates have units of Volume/ second Discussion: recognizing units

13. Example Problem Water is flowing at a velocity of 30 meters per second from a spillway outlet that has a diameter of 10 meters. What is the flow rate?

14. Chaining Conversion Factors Water is flowing at a rate of 3000 meters cubed per second from a spillway outlet. What is this flow rate in feet per hour? 3000 m 3 x 60 sec x 60 min = sec min hour

15. Momentum (plural: momenta) Momentum (p) is the product of velocity and mass, p = mv In a collision between two particles, for example, the total momentum is conserved. Ex: two particles collide and m 1 = m 2, one with initial speed v 1, the other at rest v 2 = 0, m 1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 = constant

16. Force Force is the change in momentum with respect to time. A normal speeds, Force is the product of Mass (kilograms) and Acceleration (meters/sec 2 ), so Force F = ma So Force must have SI units of kg. m sec 2 1 kg. m is called a Newton (N) sec 2

17. Statics and Dynamics If all forces and Torques are balanced, an object doesn’t move, and is said to be static Discussion Torques, See-saw Reference frames Discussion Dynamics F=2 F=1 -1 0 +2 F=3

18. Pressure Pressure is Force per unit Area So Pressure must have units of kg. m sec 2 m 2 1 kg. m is called a Pascal (Pa) sec 2 m 2

19. Density Density is the mass contained in a unit volume Thus density must have units kg/m 3 The symbol for density is 

20. Chaining Conversion Factors  Suppose you need the density of water in kg/m 3. You find that 1 cubic centimeter (cm 3 ) of water has a mass of 1 gram.  1 gram water x (100 cm) 3 x 1 kilogram = 1000 kg / m 3  (centimeter) 3 (1 meter) 3 1000 grams  water = 1000 kg / m 3

21. Mass Flow Rate Mass Flow Rate is the product of the Density and the Flow Rate i.e. Mass Flow Rate =  AV Thus the units are kg m 2 m = kg/sec m 3 sec

22. Conservation of Mass – No Storage Conservation of Mass : In a confined system “running full” and filled with an incompressible fluid, all of the mass that enters the system must also exit the system at the same time.  1 A 1 V 1 (mass inflow rate) =  2 A 2 V 2 ( mass outflow rate)

23. Conservation of Mass for a horizontal Nozzle Liquid water is incompressible, so the density does not change and  1 =  2. The density cancels out,  1 A 1 V 1 =  2 A 2 V 2 so A 1 V 1 =A 2 V 2 Notice If A 2 V 1 In a nozzle, A 2 < A 1.Thus, water exiting a nozzle has a higher velocity than at inflow The water is called a JET Q 1 = A 1 V 1 A1A1 V 1 -> Q 2 = A 2 V 2 A 1 V 1 = A 2 V 2 A 2 V 2 ->  1 A 1 V 1 (mass inflow rate) =  2 A 2 V 2 ( mass outflow rate) Consider liquid water flowing in a horizontal pipe where the cross-sectional area changes.

25. Example Problem Q 1 = A 1 V 1 A1A1 V 1 -> Q 2 = A 2 V 2 A 1 V 1 = A 2 V 2 A 2 V 2 -> Water enters the inflow of a horizontal nozzle at a velocity of V 1 = 10 m/sec, through an area of A 1 = 100 m 2 The exit area is A 2 = 10 m 2. Calculate the exit velocity V 2.

26. Energy Energy is the ability to do work, and work and energy have the same units Work is the product of Force times distance, W = Fd 1 kg. m 2 is called a N. m or Joule (J) sec 2 Energy is conserved KE + PE + P/v + Heat = constant

27. Kinetic Energy Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy of motion KE = 1/2 mass. Velocity 2 = 1/2 mV 2 SI units for KE are 1/2. kg. m. m sec 2

28. Potential Energy Potential energy (PE) is the energy possible if an object is released within an acceleration field, for example above a solid surface in a gravitational field. The PE of an object at height h is PE = mgh Units are kg. m. m sec 2

29. KE and PE exchange An object falling under gravity loses Potential Energy and gains Kinetic Energy. A pendulum in a vacuum has potential energy PE = mgh at the highest points, and no kinetic energy. A pendulum in a vacuum has kinetic energy KE = 1/2 mass. V 2 at the lowest point h = 0, and no potential energy. The two energy extremes are equal

30. Conservation of Energy We said earlier “Energy is Conserved” This means KE + PE + P/v + Heat = constant For simple systems involving liquid water without friction heat, at two places 1 and 2 1/2 mV 1 2 + mgh 1 + P 1 /v = 1/2 mV 2 2 + mgh 2 + P 2 /v If both places are at the same pressure (say both touch the atmosphere) the pressure terms are identical 1/2 mV 1 2 + mgh 1 + P 1 /v = 1/2 mV 2 2 + mgh 2 + P 2 /v

31. Example Problem A tank has an opening h = 1 m below the water level. The opening has area A 2 = 0.003 m 2, small compared to the tank with area A 1 = 3 m 2. Therefore assume V 1 ~ 0. Calculate V 2.  Method: Assume no friction, then mgh 1 =1/2mV 2 2 V 2 = 2gh 1/2 mV 1 2 + mgh 1 = 1/2 mV 2 2 + mgh 2