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Social influence – conformity and integroup relations Lecture 14
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Social influence Social influence = change of judgments, opinions and attitudes under the impact of judgments, opinions and attitudes of other people
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Autokinetic effect M. Sherif (1935) –Optical illusion of moving light –Establishing individual norms (where is the light point) –Introducing experimenter’s confederate with different norm –Convergence of norms creation of a group norm
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Experimental equipment in autokinetic effect experiments
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Two procedures I – first individual norms followed by creation of group norms II – first group norms followed by studies of individuals
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Creation of a group norm After: Sherif & Sherif, 1969
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Autokinetic effect Reversed procedure: –First creation of the group norm –Afterwards: subjects studied individually –Effect: persistance of the group norm
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Conformity Solomon Asch (1951) Comparison of lines (line matching) 18 trials 7 persons, including one naive participant and six confederates of the experimenter Participant – position 6
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Table arrangement 1 2 3 4 5 7 6
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Experimental design 37 trials: participantsloudly announce results of comparisons 6 neutral trials: the first two trials + 4 randomly distributed confederates gave correct answer 31 trials conderates give wrong answers
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Results Control group: 37 subjects - 35 persons without error Experimental group: –37% errors –only 25% subjects without any error –28% subjects - 8 or more errors –The majority - 1-7 errors
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Results of Solomon Asch experiment
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Mechanisms of conforming behaviors Informational influence: others as source of information private conformity or conversion Normative influence :conformity through desire to be liked or fear of rejection/ridicule public conformity or compliance
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Which type of influence when? Ambiguous stimuli conversion –eg. Autokinetic effect (Sherif) Unambiguous stimuli compliance –eg. Line matching (Asch)
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Reducing conformity Increasing self-confidence in own perceptions Devil’s advocate or having a supporter Size of the group
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Devil’s advocate or having a supporter Modification of Asch’s task I –Adding one person who „saw” like subject –Result: drop in conformity Modification of Asch’s task II –Adding a person who gave even more extreme answers than rest of the group –Result: drop in conformity
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Role of a supporter in reducing compliance
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Credibility of the supporter Eexperiment by Allen & Levine (1971) Conditions: –(a) Supporter known to have very poor vision (invalid social support)) –(b) Supporter known to have good vision (valid social support)) Results: Conformity higher in (a) than (b) but lower than in no support condition
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Role of social support: credible and incredible supporter After: Allen i Levine, 1971
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Increasing self-confidence in own perceptions Experiment by Ross, Bierbauer, Hoffman (1976) –Asch’s paradigm –Ss paid for correct answers –Ss informed that other Ss were in different payoff conditions Results: drop in conformity
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Instruction differentiating experimental conditions Exp. Ross, Bierbrauer & Hoffman, 1976)
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Size of group Conformity inversely related to the power function of the size of the group Conformity depends on size of the group that inserts pressure and size of the group that is subject to pressure (Social Influence Model by Tanford & Penrod)
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Social Influence Model by Tanford & Penrod
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Culture and conformity (obedience to the authority of the elders) After: Garbarino & Bronfenbrenner, 1976
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Minority influence Serge Moscovici (1976) Minority inserts influence through consistency
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Eexperiment by Moscovici Task: colour perception, 36 blue slides Conditions: 6 persons, including 2 confederates (position 1 and 4)
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Experimental design 1 2 34 5 6 participants
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Experimental conditions: Consistent condition: green on all trials Inconsistent condition: : –„green” - 24 times –„blue” - 12 times Results: consistent minority induced more change
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Results After: Moscovici, Lage & Naffrechoux, 1969)
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Mechanisms of majority & minority influences Majority compliance without conversion (normative influence) Minority conversion without compliance (informational influence)
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Minority influence: normative or informational?
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After image of blue
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After image of green
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Colour of after image as measure of type of conformity (compliance vs. konversion) After image yellow seen blue normative influence After image purple seen green informational influence
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Experiment: Moscovici & Personnaz (1980) Task: colour recognition + naming the colour of the after-image 5 blue slides –after image of blue yellow-orange –after image of green red-purple Procedure: 4 stages
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Stage I Private (without confederate) –write down the colour –rate the after-image yellow purple 19
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Feedback information Ss informed that their response shared by : 81.8 % people18,2% people Subject in majoritySubject in minority The remaining percentage saw GREEN
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Stage II 15 trials (with confederate) tested in pairs name of the colour given publicly no judgment of after image the first subject (confederate) said GREEN this perceived as a minority (1) or majority (2) response
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Stage III With confederate 15 trials Privacy conditions: writing down the colour +rating the after-image
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Stage IV Private and without confederate writing down the colour +rating the after- image Results: more conversion in minority conditions
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Results
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Obedience
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Stanley Milgram (1933-1984)
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Experimental creation of obedience (Milgram, 1974) Teacher – pupil Punishing errors Voltage: 15-450 V 26/40 subjects continued to the very end
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Remote condition 100 80 60 50 40 20 10 Lekki Umiar kowany Silny B. silny Inten sywny B.inten sywny Niebezp. 450V „uczeń” wali w ścianę, potem milknie Uczeń wali w ścianę, protestując Aż 65% badanych posłuchało, aplikując „uczniowi” śmiertelną dawkę prądu % badanych Siła szoku
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Results
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Predicted and real results After: Milgram (1974)
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Factors that enable obedience Gradual escalation Experimenter’s detachment
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Reducing obedience Two experimenters who disagree whether to continue or not Rebelling confederates (one stopping at 150 V, another at 210 V) Experimenter giving orders by telephone Ss being close to the “pupil” or touching him Ss having to choose whether to give the next shock Another „subject” giving orders instead of an experimenter
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Reducing obedience After: Milgram (1974)
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Reducing obedience – manipulating closeness of the victim Milgram, 1963, 1965)
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Are dispositions altogether not important? ??
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Other examples of social influence Social facilitation Social loafing
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Social facilitation
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1897 - Triplett – cyclists ride faster when in group than when alone Robert Zajonc (1965): The mere presence effect
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Results Presence of others facilitates performance on easy tasks, impedes performance on complex tasks Subjects: people, cockroaches
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Explanations Level of arousal (R. B. Zajonc) Evaluation anxiety (N. B. Cottrell) Others as distractors (G.S. Sanders, R.S. Baron, D.L. Moore)
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Level of arousal Presence of others Increased arousal increased drive Increased probability od dominant reaction Facilitation on easy task Handicap on difficult task After: Zajonc (1965, 1980)
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Evaluation anxiety Presence of others Evaluation anxietyNo anxiety No effectarousal Intensification of dominant reaction Facilitation on easy task Handicap on difficult task
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Others as distractors Distraction Lowered performanceIncreased effort Difficult taskEasy task Worse performance Better performance
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Social loafing
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1882/1887: Ringelman – pulling a line in groups: one-, two – three -, eight persons –1 person - 63 kg –2 persons - 118 kg (loss - 8 kg) –3 persons - 160 kg (loss - 29 kg) –8 persons - loss 256 kg Bibb Latane: –pulling line –aplauding –shouting
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Social loafing
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Cooperation lowers individual performance
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Explanation Group productivity Potential productivity Coordination losses Motivational losses = -- Social loafing results from: Decrease in motivation Decrease in coordination
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After: Latane, Williams i Harkins (1979)
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Social loafing disappears when: Performance of individual members is supervised Each member has clear standards of performance Task is engaging Group is coherent (group morale) An individual knows that he or she is good and that the group outcome depends on the best performance
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After: Zaccaro, 1984
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Other examples of „social loafing” Public vs. private property „free-riding”
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Group tasks and group productivity
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Group performance Group performance Potential group performance Losses
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Types of group tasks (Ivan Steiner) Additive tasks –Group performance = sum of performances of group members (eg. Pulling line, applauding etc.) Disjunctive tasks –Group performance depends on performance of the best member (eg. Creative tasks, solving problems) Conjunctive tasks –Group performanve depends on performance of the worst member (eg. Mountain climbing) Additive and disjunctive tasks = groups better than individual members Conjunctive tasks – individual members better than groups
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Leadership
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Types of leaders(Bales & Slater) Social-emotional leader –Cares about good atmosphere in a group Task leader –Imposes structure, organizes communication etc..
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Two types of leaders and group productivity (I. Steiner) Actual productivity Potential productivity Losses in productivity Task leader increases this Social- emotional leader decreases this
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Group productivity Potential productivity Coordination losses Motivational losses = -- Social- emotional leader Task leader
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Risky shift & group polarization effect
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Risky shift Stoner (1961): Group decisions more risky than decisions of individual members
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Group polarization Moscovici & Zavalloni (1969): group opinions more polarized than individual opinions Direction of polarization depends on initial average group opinion
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Group polarization After: Moscovici & Zavalloni, 1969)
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Group polarization effects After: Meyers & Bishop, 1970
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Possible mechanisms of risky shift Festinger – Theory of social comparisons –Social value of risk (everybody wants to be more risky than others) –Comparison with others higher motivation to take risky decisions
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Risk value After: Levinger & Schneider, 1969
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Explanations of group polarization Burnstein i Vinokur: more available arguments during group discussion polarization effect Tesser’s effect – thinking about a target leads to polarization of an attitude Stability of extreme positions: undecided persons more more towards extreme positions than the other way round
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