1. Forest Soils & Vegetation Development SOILS = f (?????) SOILS = f (cl, r, o, p, t, …..H) 1

2. 2

3. How would you solve this equation??? OR How would you design the research to solve this equation???? 3

4. This is called a ??? Climofunction 4

5. Quantitative research! Eg: S 1 = f(cl a,p a,r a,o a,t a,..,) S 2 = f(cl b,p a,r a,o a,t a,..,) S 3 = f(cl c,p a,r a,o a,t a,..,) S 4 = f(cl d,p a,r a,o a,t a,..,) 5

6. Can this type of research be accomplished??? 6

7. Chronosequence??? Chronosequence??? 7

8. Qualitative research!! ??? Maybe Quantitative now Eg: S 1 = f(cl 1.0,p 1.0,r 1,0,o 1.0,t 1,..,) S 2 = f(cl 1.1,p 1.2,r 1.2,o 1.2,t 2,..,) S 3 = f(cl 1.1,p 1.3,r 1.5,o 1.2,t 3,..,) S 4 = f(cl 1.2,p 1.1,r 1.0,o 1.0,t 4,..,) 8

9. Soils or some soil property may be described as ‘mature’ or in ‘equilibrium’ or ‘STEADY STATE’ when: t1 9

10. The change in SOILS or soil parameters is called?? (pedogenesis) Is steady state common in ecosystems?? 10

11. Pedogenic processes involve: additions of organic & mineral materials to the soil as solids, liquids & gases additions of organic & mineral materials to the soil as solids, liquids & gases (eg, littering, cumulization) losses of those from the soil losses of those from the soil (eg, leaching, erosion) translocations of materials from one point to another within the soil translocations of materials from one point to another within the soil (eg, eluviation, illuviation, podzolization) transformations of mineral & organic substances within the soil transformations of mineral & organic substances within the soil (eg, decomposition, mineralization) 11

12. Processes affect soil development Processes affect soil development Processes affect vegetation Processes affect vegetationBUT! Soil affects processes, AND Soil affects processes, AND Vegetation affects processes Vegetation affects processesSO 12

13. SOILS affect Vegetation SOILS affect VegetationAnd Vegetation affects SOILS Vegetation affects SOILSAND HUMANS affect both!! HUMANS affect both!! 13

14. Forest Soils & Vegetation Development So with MANAGEMENT we can affect both Vegetation ANDSOILS 14

15. Soil Physical Properties affect tree growth ???? ???? 15

16. Texture Sandy soil? Sandy soil? Clayey soil? Clayey soil? Loams just right? Loams just right? Ameliorate poor texture? Ameliorate poor texture? OM? OM? ??? ??? 16

17. Structure Moderates effects of texture Moderates effects of texture Water percolationWater percolation AerationAeration Bulk densityBulk density OM? OM? Coatings of Fe or CaCO 3, salts Coatings of Fe or CaCO 3, salts ??? ??? 17

18. Bulk Density Root penetration Root penetration Affects pore volume -water, air, ??? Affects pore volume -water, air, ??? Management affects BD? Management affects BD? negative, positive??negative, positive?? 18

19. Color Depicts OM, moisture, parent material, salts, ?? Depicts OM, moisture, parent material, salts, ?? Affects temperatures Affects temperatures Indirectly, if OM, it affects nutrients, moisture, etc??? Indirectly, if OM, it affects nutrients, moisture, etc??? 19

20. Temperature Affects soil organisms, chemistry, weathering of minerals Affects soil organisms, chemistry, weathering of minerals 20

21. Water Adhesion Adhesion Cohesion Cohesion Water potential Water potential Matric – attraction btwn water & soil particlesMatric – attraction btwn water & soil particles Osmotic – soluble salts, important in dry soilsOsmotic – soluble salts, important in dry soils Gravitational – water in large pores (saturated-field capacity)Gravitational – water in large pores (saturated-field capacity) Field capacity – after saturated soil drains Field capacity – after saturated soil drains Permanent wilting point - Permanent wilting point - 21

22. Water (cont’d) Hydraulic conductivity Hydraulic conductivity Infiltration Infiltration Rate of water input, initial water content (pore space, OM content, expansion of clays & OM)Rate of water input, initial water content (pore space, OM content, expansion of clays & OM) Evaporation – control? Evaporation – control? Cover (canopy, mulch, Cover (canopy, mulch, Crop residue & conservation tillage Crop residue & conservation tillage 22

23. U.S. Soil Taxonomy Soil Orders 23

24. Major Soil Types in Forest Regions Major Forest Types Boreal Temp conifer, mixed, hardwood, & montane Tropical rain forests, monsoon forests, dry forest Most Common Soil Orders Gelisols, Spodosols, Histosols, Inceptisols Alfisols, Inceptisols, Ultisols, Spodosols, Entisols, Mollisols Ultisols, Inceptisols, Oxisols, Andisols 24

26. Processes: 1a. Eluviation 1a. Eluviation Movement of material out of a portion of a soil profile as in an albic horizon (E) 1b. Illuviation 1b. Illuviation Movement of material into a portion of soil profile as in an argillic (Bt) or spodic (Bs or Bhs) horizon 26

27. Processes: 2a. Leaching 2a. Leaching General term for washing out or eluviating soluble materials from the solum 2b. Enrichment 2b. Enrichment General term for addition of material to a soil body

28. Processes: 3a. Erosion 3a. Erosion Removal of material from the surface layer of a soil 3b. Cumulization 3b. Cumulization Aeolian, hydrologic & human-made additions of mineral particles to the surface of a soil solum [also urbic, garbic, spolic?]

29. Processes: 4a. Decalcification 4a. Decalcification Reactions that remove (or move out) CaCO 3 from one or more soil horizons 4b. Calcification 4b. Calcification Processes including accumulation of CaCO 3 in Ck & possibly other horizons (Bk)

30. Processes: 5a. Salinization 5a. Salinization Accumulation of soluble salts (eg SO4’s & Cl’s of Ca, Mg, Na or K) in salic (Bz) (salty) horizons 5b. Desalinization 5b. Desalinization Removal of soluble salts from salic soil horizons

31. Processes: 6a. Alkalization or solonization 6a. Alkalization or solonization Accumulation of Na ions on the exchange sites in a soil 6b. Dealkalization or solodization 6b. Dealkalization or solodization Leaching of Na ions & salts from a natric (Btn) horizon

32. Processes: 7a. Lessivage 7a. Lessivage Mechanical migration of small mineral particles from the A to the B horizon producing a clay enriched B horizon (ie, argillic = Bt) 7b. Pedoturbation 7b. Pedoturbation Biologic, physical (freeze-thaw & wet-dry cycles) churning & cycling of soil materials, thereby homogenizing the solum in varying degrees. Eg

33. Processes: 7b. Pedoturbation - Eg faunal pedoturbation - animals faunal pedoturbation - animals floral pedoturbation - plants (eg, tip overs) floral pedoturbation - plants (eg, tip overs) congellipedoturbation - freeze-thaw congellipedoturbation - freeze-thaw argillipedoturbation - mass wasting argillipedoturbation - mass wasting movements by expansion of clays movements by expansion of clays aeropedoturbation - mix soil gases (after rain) aeropedoturbation - mix soil gases (after rain) aquapedoturbation - mix soil H 2 O (upwelling aquapedoturbation - mix soil H 2 O (upwelling currents) currents) crystalpedoturbation - mix crystal growth crystalpedoturbation - mix crystal growth seismipedoturbation seismipedoturbation

34. Processes: 8a. Podzolization 8a. Podzolization Chemical migration of Al & Fe &/or OM resulting in the concentration of Si (ie, silication) in the layer eluviated (Bs, Bhs) 8b. Desilication or ferrallitization, ferritization, allitization 8b. Desilication or ferrallitization, ferritization, allitization Chemical migration of Si out of the soil solum and thus increase the concentration of sesquioxides in the solum (goethite, gibbsite, etc), with or without formation of ironstone (laterite; hardened plinthite) and concretions [laterization]

35. Processes: 9a. Decomposition 9a. Decomposition Breakdown of mineral & organic materials 9b. Synthesis 9b. Synthesis Formation of new particles of mineral & organic species

36. Processes: 10a. Melanization 10a. Melanization Darkening of light-colored mineral initial unconsolidated materials by admixture of OM (as in a dark A or mollic or umbric horizon) 10b. Leucinization 10b. Leucinization Paling of soil horizons by disappearance of dark organic materials either through transformation to light-colored ones or through removal from the horizons

37. Processes: 11a. Littering 11a. Littering Accumulation on the mineral soil surface of organic (plant & faunal) litter and associated humus to a depth of less than 30 cm (Oi & Oe) 11b. Humification 11b. Humification Transformation of raw organic material into humus (Oe & Oa) 11c. Mineralization 11c. Mineralization Release of oxide solids through decomposition of OM

38. Processes:(cont’d) 11d. Ripening 11d. Ripening Chemical, biological & physical changes in organic soil after air penetrates previously waterlogged material (eg, polder construction) 11e. Paludization 11e. Paludization Processes regarded by some workers as geogenic rather than pedogenic, including the accumulation of deep (> 30cm) deposits of OM as in mucks & peats - Histosols

39. Processes: 12a. Braunification, rubification, ferrugination 12a. Braunification, rubification, ferrugination Release of iron from primary minerals and the dispersion of particles of iron oxide in increasing amounts; their progressive oxidation or hydration, giving the soil mass brownish, reddish brown, and red colors, respectively 12b. Gleization 12b. Gleization Reduction of iron (Fe +3  Fe +2 ) under anaerobic “waterlogged” soil conditions, with the production of bluish to greenish gray matrix colors, with or without yellowish brown, brown, and black mottles, and ferric and manganiferous concretions

40. Processes: 13a. Loosening 13a. Loosening Increase in volume of voids by activity of plants, animals, & humans and by freeze-thaw or other physical processes and by removal of material by leaching 13b. Hardening 13b. Hardening Decrease in volume of voids by collapse & compaction & by filling of some voids with fine earth, carbonates, silica & other materials