1. The Challenges of Making a Living

2. Structural Organization Most plants and animals have cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems A plant or animal body becomes structurally organized during growth and development –Growth: cells increase in number, size, volume –Development: specialized tissues, organs, and organ systems form Animals have “control centers” to regulate body function in the short-term, whereas plants have decentralized control over function What are some of the challenges associated with large body size? If all somatic cells in an organism have the same genetic information, how can cells specialize into tissues & organs?

3. Homeostasis = the maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium Plant and animal cells must be bathed in a relatively stable fluid that delivers nutrients and carries away metabolic wastes in order to stay alive –Why might an organism’s internal environment change? –Why is a stable internal environment important to an organism’s survival? Describe an example. p. 7

4. Maintaining Homeostasis What are the common challenges? O 2 & CO 2 gas exchange water-solute balance signaling molecules to guide events on the cellular level live within specific habitats, and respond to environmental threats Behavioral adaptations –e.g. thermoregulation Cellular adaptations –e.g. aclimatization –intercellular communication Genetic adaptations –new allele combinations –mutations Describe an example of a mechanism to adapt to short term changes in the environment. Is your example a behavioral or cellular adaptation? Where does it occur, and how long does it last? Describe the scope of a genetic adaptation in terms of the number of individuals affected, and the time period over which it occurs.

5. Internal Condition High Low Optimum range homeostasis Stress Intolerance High # individuals Stable operating conditions in the internal environment (in the blood and tissue fluid) is maintained by the coordinated activities of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems Zone of Tolerance

6. Behavioral Adaptations

7. Cellular Adaptations

8. Genetic Adaptations –Crossing Over –Independent assortment –Fertilization –New alleles (gene mutations) How do genetically derived adaptive traits within a population come about? Describe how a genome might be changed by these 4 mechanisms. How might the gene pool be altered when these sources of variation arise?

9. Gene Pool http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/LAD/C21/C21_GenePool.html What is a gene pool? What is the relationship between a gene pool and a popluation? What might cause changes in the gene pool? Is this evolution?

10. Gene Mutation Change in the structure of DNA in gametes.

11. Amino acid redundancy allows for fewer mutations

12. Rare! –1 gamete in 100,000- 1,000,000 Neutral (why?) Deleterious –Changes the shape of a protein –Stops synthesis of a protein too early Advantageous Gene Mutation What will likely happen to deleterious mutations in a population?

13. Charles Darwin’s radical idea (…or was it?) Meticulous observation Considered numerous possible relationships, especially b/w animals and their environment 2 main points: –Species evolved from ancestral species –Natural selection was the mechanism for this evolutionary change

14. On the Origin of Species Descent with modification (aka evolution) is the explanation for life’s unity and diversity –all organisms are related via a common ancestor –adaptations developed as descendents from a common ancestor moved into new habitats (or the habitat changed) Darwin’s metaphor for the history of life was a branching tree.

15. Observation 1 Species have a great potential for reproduction Populations would increase exponentially if all individuals survived and reproduced

16. Observation 2 Populations tend to remain stable over time, except for mild seasonal fluctuations and occasional severe fluctuations Moose population on island in Lake Superior

17. Observation 3 Natural resources are limited, i.e. there is a struggle for existence

18. Observation 4 No two individuals are exactly the same; rather, every population displays enormous variability.

19. Observation 5 Much of this variation is heritable However, Darwin did not know the mechanism of inheritance

20. Darwin’s four postulates 1.Individuals within species are variable. 2.Some of these variations are passed onto offspring. 3.In every generation, more offspring are produced than can survive. 4.Survival and reproduction are not random. The individuals that survive and go on to reproduce, are the ones with the most favorable variations.

21. Other Evidence for Evolution Organisms are adapted to their environments Camouflage is an example of evolutionary adaptation A floral mantid (insect pollinator)

22. Other evidence Examples of “natural” selection over short periods of time Evolution of resistance to insecticides in insect populations Is it fair to describe this as natural selection? How is this similar to antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria?

23. Other evidence Selective breeding & artificial selection Vegetables developed by humans from wild mustard plant through selective breeding

24. Other evidence Homologous structures Forearm bones in mammals

25. Other evidence Molecular “record” – molecular homologies Ribosomal structure (large subunit of bacterial ribosome)

26. Other evidence Fossil record Fossil Trilobites Elephant evolution based on fossils

27. Alterations to the Gene Pool: Gene flow As individuals or gametes flow between populations, they become more similar. The reverse is also true.

28. Alterations to the Gene Pool: Genetic Drift With low population size, alleles (i.e. traits) can disappear How might this happen? Has evolution occurred? Is the population more fit?

29. Alterations to the Gene Pool: Directional Selection Deaths due to pesticides decreased over time. What determines which alleles are selected?

30. Alterations to the Gene Pool: Stabilizing Selection Previously, those babies that were too small did not survive and those that were too big had complications. Does this imply that birth weight is an inherited trait?

31. Alterations to the Gene Pool: Disruptive Selection Large billed individuals crack hard seeds. Small billed individuals crack soft seeds. Intermediate forms do not crack either seeds well.