1. Gluconeogenesis and Beta- oxiation Lecture 22

2. Glucogneogenesis Essentially a reversal of glycolysis Pyruvate  Glucose Requires three irreversible steps of glycolysis to be bypassed –Glucose ‘trapping’ The first step in glycolysis –Phosphofructokinase The rate limiting step in glycolysis –Pyruvate kinase The final step in glycolysis Gluconeogenesis can only occur in the liver –Mainly cytoplasmic

3. Glucose 6-phosphatase Reversal of glucose trapping –Catalysed by hexokinase/glucokinase Required for release of glucose into the bloodstream Begins with transport of G6P into vesicles of endoplasmic reticulum –Special transporter required Hydrolysis of G6P –By glucose 6-phosphatase (G6Pase) –Glucose goes back into cytoplasm through GLUT-9 Glucose released into blood via GLUT-2 –Remember these are very active and [glucose] blood = [glucose] liver G6Pase is increased in activity on starvation –Regulated by increased transcription/translation of gene

4. Fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase Reversal of F6P  F16BP Above reaction stimulated by allosteric effector F26BP –F26BP made by PFK-2 –F26BP inhibits F16BPase and stimulates PFK –So when F26BP is high, glycolysis is favoured Phosphorylation of PFK-2 converts it into F26BPase –Thus the amount of F26BP decreases –PFK is inhibited and F16BPase increases –So when F26BP is low, gluconeogensis is favoured Phosphoryation is catalysed by cAMP-dependant protein kinase –Protein kinase A –PKA will be active when cAMP is high –When glucagon has bound to its receptors on the liver cell membrane F16BPase is activated when glucagon levels are high –As in starvation!

5. Gluconeogenesis & Glycolysis When starving –glucagon    [cAMP] –[F2,6BP]  No stimulus for PFK  no glycolysis No inhibition for F1,6BPase  favours gluconeogenesis

6. Reverse PEP  pyruvate Glycolytic step catalysed by pyruvate kinase –Step at which ATP is made Requires two bypass steps –Carboxylation to oxaloacteate Mitochondrial, pyruvate carboxylase –Decarboxylation to PEP Cytosolic, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) –Both steps require ATP (or GTP) Pyruvate carboxylase –Stimulated by acetyl-CoA –So will be stimulated by fatty acid oxidation PEPCK –Stimulated by increased transcription/translation of the gene

7. Gluconeognesis Requires ATP Stimulated in starvation –Only happens in liver Control steps illustrative of –Reversible phosphorylation –Allosteric activation –Gene expression Substrates include –Lactate Enters as pyruvate at the bottom –Glycerol Enters at aldolase stage (just as F16BP has split) –Amino acid carbon-skeletons Can enter in a variety of places Eg, oxaloacetate from aspartate, pyruvate from alanine

8. Fatty acid oxidation Also called beta-oxidation Because most action occurs on the beta-carbon atom –Old fashioned nomenclature Requires tissues to have mitocondria Reciprocally regulated with glucose oxidation –Fatty acid oxidation inhibits glucose oxidation –Insulin inhibits fatty acid oxidaiton Consumes a lot of FAD, NAD, CoA –Availability of cofactors is important

9. Different Naming Systems

10. Transport of FA

11. FA needs to be transported from blood into tissues FA is carried in blood on albumin, which has several binding sites for FA There are specific transporters for FA: CD36/FATP –CD36 moves to the cell surface whenever there is a need to take up FA at a rapid rate FA is carried on FABP (fatty acid binding protein) in cytoplasm

12. Trapping of FA FA is trapped by CoA CoA - not only traps FA, but also “activates” it (primes it) Requires quite a lot of energy,  ATP is not converted into ADP, but AMP

13. Transport of FA: Mitochondria

14. FA-CoA cannot cross the inner-mitochondrial membrane –FA needs to be transferred to carnitine in order to get into the mitochondria (carnitine forms ester with FA) CAT = carnitine acyl transferase –Converts FA into a form that can be taken into the mitochondria (by specific carrier) –Regenerates CoA – CoA is needed for trapping more FA CoA: pool in cytoplasm and pool in mitochondria never mix  compartmentalization,  CoA can be at different concentration in the cytoplasm & in the mitochondria

15. Transport of FA: Mitochondria Malonyl CoA is a very strong inhibitor of CAT-I CAT-I is the key regulator of fat oxidation - once FA gets into the mitochondria, it will be oxidized (i.e. the only fate of mitochondrial FA-CoA is oxidation) Alternative fate of FA-CoA in the cytoplasm is esterification with glycerol-3-phosphate to form lipid Insulin inhibits CAT-I via  malonyl CoA –Which is produced by acetyl CoA carboxylase –Normally associated with lipogenesis but occurs in muscle tissue too in a regulatory role

16.  -oxidation

17. Summary of  -oxidation Example: 16C FA-CoA –7 NADH & 7FADH 2 are produced, 7 CoA are required –16C FA-CoA  8 acetyl CoA

18. Unsaturated FAs Examples: –C18:1 (9) - oleic 18 carbons, 1 double bond at the 9 th position –C18:2 (9, 12) - linoleic

19. Oxidation of Unsaturated FAs After 3 rounds of  -oxidation, intermediates would normally have double bonds between  and  carbon, but in unsaturated FAs, the double bonds will be between  and  carbon  need to move the double bond

20. Oxidation of Unsaturated FAs The process of  -oxidation will halt if the double bonds cannot be moved to the appropriate position Our body has enzymes that can shift the double bond position  but only if the double bonds are in cis configuration

21. Oxidation of Unsaturated FAs The double bonds in natural occurring unsaturated FAs are in cis The double bonds in unsaturated FAs result from hydrogenation are in both cis and trans Polyunsaturated FAs are liquid. To make them more solid – so as to be spreadable like butter, Hs are added to the FAs Hydrogenation is a chemical process – using strange temperatures, pressures and catalysts Creates some strangly positioned and configured double bonds

22. Ketogenesis Only occurs in the liver Need lots of NAD, FAD & CoA to keep beta-oxidation going, –so need to regenerate co-factors NAD & FAD are regenerated in the electron transport chain which is dependent on ATP production/demand CoA is regenerated by sending acetyl CoA into Krebs cycle –there is limit to how much acetyl CoA can enters the Krebs cycle –only when energy is needed So normally CoA regeneration is dependent on ATP demand Ketogenesis represents an extra way of regenerating CoA –Thus allowing beta-oxidation to happen very fast in the liver