1. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.1Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 1 SQL:1999 Advanced Querying Decision-Support Systems Data Warehousing Data Analysis and OLAP This also apply to SQL: 2003 that is just a minor revision of SQL:1999

2. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.2Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 2 Decision Support Systems Decision-Support systems are used to make business decisions often based on data collected by on-line transaction- processing systems. Examples of business decisions:  what items to stock?  What insurance premium to change?  Who to send advertisements to? Examples of data used for making decisions  Retail sales transaction details  Customer profiles (income, age, sex, etc.)

3. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.3Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 3 Decision-Support Systems: Overview A data warehouse archives information gathered from multiple sources, and stores it under a unified schema, at a single site.  Important for large businesses which generate data from multiple divisions, possibly at multiple sites  Data may also be purchased externally Data analysis tasks are simplified by specialized tools and SQL extensions  Example tasks  For each product category and each region, what were the total sales in the last quarter and how do they compare with the same quarter last year  As above, for each product category and each customer category Statistical analysis packages (e.g., : S++) can be interfaced with databases  Partial support through OLAP Functions Data mining seeks to discover knowledge automatically in the form of statistical rules and patterns from Large databases.

4. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.4Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 4 Data Warehousing A data warehouse is a repository of information gathered from multiple sources.

5. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.5Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 5 Data Warehousing (Cont.) Provides a single consolidated interface to data Data stored for an extended period, providing access to historical data Data/updates are periodically downloaded form online transaction processing (OLTP) systems.  Typically, download happens each night.  Data may not be completely up-to-date, but is recent enough for analysis. Running large queries at the warehouse ensures that OLTP systems are not affected by the decision-support workload.

6. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.6Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 6 Issues in Building a Warehouse When and how to gather data.  Source driven: data source initiates data transfer  Destination driven: warehouse initiates data transfer What schema to use.  Schema integration  Cleaning and conversion of incoming data What data to summarize.  Raw data may be too large to store on-line  Aggregate values (totals/subtotals) often suffice  Queries on raw data can often be transformed by query optimizer to use aggregate values How to propagate updates.  Date at warehouse is a view on source data  Efficient view maintenance techniques required

7. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.7Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 7 Data-Warehouse Architecture

8. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.8Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 8 Star Schema For A Data Warehouse

9. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.9Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 9 Online Analytical Processing The operation of changing the dimensions used in a cross-tab is called pivoting. An OLAP system provides other functionality as well. For instance, the analyst may wish to see a cross-tab on item-name and color for a fixed value of size, for example, large, instead of the sum across all sizes. Such an operation is referred to as slicing. The operation is sometimes called dicing, particularly when values for multiple dimensions are fixed. The operation of moving from finer-granularity data to a coarser granularity is called a rollup. The opposite operation - that of moving from coarser-granularity data to finer-granularity data – is called a drill down.

10. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.10Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 10 Relational Representation of the Data in Figure 22.1

11. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.11Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 11 Cross Tabulation of sales by item-name and color The table above is an example of a cross-tabulation(or cross- tab) also referred to as a pivot-table. In general, a cross-table is a table where values for one attribute form the row headers, values for another attribute form the column headers, and the values in an individual cell are derived as follows. A cross tab with summary rows/columns can be represented by introducing a special value all to represent subtotals.

12. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.12Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 12 Hierarchies on Dimensions

13. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.13Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 13 Cross Tabulation of sales With Hierarchy on item-name

14. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.14Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 14 Three-Dimensional Data Cube

15. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.15Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 15 OLAP Implementation The earliest OLAP systems used multidimensional arrays in memory to store data cubes, and are referred to as mutidimensional OLAP (MOLAP) systems. Hybrid systems, which store some summaries in memory and store the base data and other summaries in a relational database, are called hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) systems.

16. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.16Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 16 Data Analysis (Cont.) Rollup: Moving from finer-granularity data to a coarser granularity by means of aggregation. Drill down: Moving from coarser-granularity data finer- granularity data. Proposed extensions to SQL, such as the cube operation help to support generation of summary data The following query generates the previous table. select color, size, sum (number) from sales groupby color, size with cube

17. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.17Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 17 Data Analysis (Cont.) Figure shows the combinations of dimensions size, color, price In general computing cube operation with n groupby columns gives 2nd different groupby combinations.

18. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.18Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 18 SQL:1999 Extended GroupBy also supports generalizations of the group by constructs, using the cube and rollup constructs. A representative use of the cube construct is; select item-name, color, size, sum(number) from sales group by cube(item-name, color, size) This query computes the union of eight different groupings of the sales relation: { (item-name, color, size), (item-name, color), (item-name, size), (color, size), (item-name), (color), (size), ( ) } Where ( ) denotes an empty group by list.  For each grouping, the result contains the null value for attributes not present in the grouping. For instance, with occurrences of all replaced by null, can be computed by the query select item-name, color, sum(number) from sales group by cube(item-name, color)

19. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.19Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 19 Extended Group By (Cont.) A representative rollup construct is select item-name, color, size, sum(number) from sales group by rollup(item-name, color, size) Here only four grouping are generated: { (item-name, color, size), (item-name, color), (item-name), ( ) } Rollup can be used to generate aggregates at multiple levels of a hierarchy on a column. For instance, we have a table itemcategory(item- name, category) giving the category of each item. Then the query select category, item-name, sum(number) from sales, category where sales.item-name = itemcategory.item-name group by rollup(category, item-name) would give a hierarchical summary by item-name and by category.

20. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.20Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 20 Extended Group By (Cont.) Multiple rollups and cubes can be used in a single group by clause.For instances, the following query select item-name, color, size, sum(number) from sales group by rollup(item-name), rollup(color, size) generates the groupings { (item-name, color, size), (item-name, color), (item-name), (color, size), (color), ( ) } The function grouping can be applied on an attribute; it returns 1 if the value is a null value representing all, and returns 0 in all other cases. Consider the following query: select item-name, color, size, sum(number), grouping(item-name) as item-name-flag, grouping(color) as color-flag, grouping(size) as size-flag, from sales group by cube(item-name, color, size)

21. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.21Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 21 Extended Aggregation: OLAP Functions Rank, row_number and other functions based on explicit order Many new statistical functions: see, e.g., DB2 UDB's High-Function Business Intelligence in e-business---Red Book http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/redbooks/SG246546.html  STDDEV, etc.  CORRELATION,  COVARIANCE.  Regression functions: Y = a X + b  REGR_SLOPE -> a  REGR_INTERCEPT -> b Windows on aggregates:  Physical windows: based on the number of rows in the window  Logical windows: based on the value span of the window.

22. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.22Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 22 Ranking Ranking is done in conjunction with an order by specification. Suppose we are given a relation student-marks(student-id, marks) which stores the marks obtained by each student. The following query gives the rank of each student. select student-id, rank( ) over (order by (marks) desc) as s-rank from student-marks An extra order by clause is needed to get them in sorted order, as shown below. select student-id, rank ( ) (order by (marks) desc) as s-rank from student-marks order by s-rank

23. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.23Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 23 Partition By Ranking can be done within partition of the data. The following query then gives the rank of students within each section: student-marks(student-id, marks); student- section(student-id, section) select student-id, section, rank( ) over (partition by section order by marks desc) as sec-rank from student-marks, student-section where student-marks.student-id = student-section.student-id order by section, sec-rank dense_rank(): no holes after ties row_number(): provide row numbering given a specific partitioning and ordering of rows.

24. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.24Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 24 Ranking (Cont.) For a given constant n, the ranking the function ntile(n) takes the tuples in each partition in the specified order, and divides them into n buckets with qual numbers of tuples. For instance, we an sort employees by salary, and use ntile(3) to find which range (bottom third, middle third, or top third) each employee is in, and compute the total salary earned by employees in each range: select threetile, sum(salary) from ( select salary, ntile(3) over (order by (salary) as threetile from employee) as s group by threetile SQL:1999 permits the user to specify where they should occur by using nulls first or nulls last, for instance select student-id, rank ( ) over (order by marks desc nulls last) as s-rank from student-marks

25. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan22.25Database System Concepts 4 th Edition 25 Aggregates on Windows An example of window query is that, given sales values for each date, calculates for each date the average of the sales on that day, the previous day, and the next day; such moving average queries are used to smooth out random variations. In contrast to group by, the same tuple can exist in multiple windows. Suppose we are given a relation transaction(account-number, date-time, value), select account-number, date-time, sum(value) over (partition by account-number order by date-time range unbounded preceding) This query returns a new sum for each new tuple—cumulative sum! An actual window can also be specified: e.g. range 10 rows preceding range 30 minutes preceding