1. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 An Introduction to the Physics of Our Star: The Sun Distance from Earth –1 AU Travel time for Light to Earth –About 8 minutes Travel time for solar wind to 1 AU –A few days Mean surface temperature –5800K Temperature in the Center –1.55x10 7 K

2. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Sun Mass –333,000 Earth Masses –More mass than all of the other objects in the solar system combined Diameter –218 Earth Diameters Average Density –1410 kg/m 3 Composition (by mass) –74% Hydrogen, 25% Helium, 1% other elements Sun seen in Xrays

3. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Sun Seen From Earth by Amateurs COMMON SENSE WARNING … NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE SUN WITHOUT A PROPER FILTER !! –Looking directly at the Sun without the proper filter WILL cause permanent eye damage Safest to use the method of projection –Project the image onto a piece of paper –Can see sunspots, and even “graph” them easily

4. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Sun Seen From Earth by Amateurs Using a Baader solar filter –Inexpensive –Many “solar observing glasses” are made out of this material –Used to see sunspots –Similar to Mylar

5. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Sun Seen From Earth by Amateurs Hα filters –Much more pricey 100s-1000s of dollars –Can see features in the solar chromosphere –Used to see Prominences, filaments, flares –Very impressive Sun seen with an Hα filter

6. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 How Old is the Sun ? Probably about the same age as Earth Has it been shining brightly the entire time? –The luminosity has probably increased with time, but it has always been very bright What is the “fuel” that keeps it shining this long?

7. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Sun’s Energy Source is Thermonuclear Fusion in its Core Proton-proton chain –Four hydrogen nuclei “fuse” to form a single helium nucleus –There is a slight loss of mass in this process which is converted to energy according to Einstein’s famous equation E = mc 2 Thermonuclear fusion occurs only at the very high temperatures at the Sun’s core Fusion should not be confused with fission ! Will continue to heat the Sun for another 5 billion years

8. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Proton-Proton Chain

9. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Structure of the Sun The Interior –Core –Radiative zone –Convection zone The Surface and Atmosphere –Photosphere –Chromosphere –corona

10. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Sun’s Interior Hydrogen fusion takes place in a core extending from the Sun’s center to about 0.25 solar radius The radiative zone extends to about 0.71 solar radius –Here energy travels outward through radiative diffusion The convective zone is a rather opaque gas –Here energy travels outward primarily through convection

11. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Where do the Neutrino’s and γ-ray photons go ? Neutrino’s exit the Sun, unimpeded –Can be used to probe the solar interior –Early attempts at detecting them found that their were about 3 times less seen at Earth than there should be –THE SOLAR NEUTRINO PROBLEM ! The gamma rays collide with matter and take millions of years to exit the Sun

12. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Detecting Solar Neutrinos Underground detectors are used to avoid interference from cosmic rays

13. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Solution to the Solar Neutrino Problem Particle Physics gave us the answer –Solar neutrinos oscillate and the original detectors could only see certain parts of the oscillations and not all of them –New detectors were built to observe all neutrinos –Two physicists won a Nobel Prize for their work Modern detectors are placed at different depths within the Earth to observe the actual oscillations Raymond Davis Jr. Masatoshi Koshiba

14. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Solar Structure The standard solar model –Theoretical model used to determine the physical properties of the Sun’s interior –Assumes hydrostatic and thermal equilibrium

15. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Solar Oscillations Waves can propagate through the Sun causing a variety of vibrations –Like sound waves These are used to infer pressures, densities, chemical compositions, and rotation rates within the Sun

16. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Helioseismology The branch of science that studies solar oscillations is known as Helioseismology The movie shows evidence of seismic activity on the Sun as seen by the SOHO MDI experiment

17. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Convection Zone The convection zone is just outside the radiative zone. –Thickness is about 200,000 km Turbulent convective motions occur, similar to a pot of boiling water. Overturning (bubbling) motions inside the Sun are responsible for the granulation pattern seen on the Sun’s surface.

18. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Convection Cells

19. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Convection cells that are about 1000 km wide These are part of the Sun’s atmosphere known as the Photosphere Solar Granulation

20. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Recent High- resolution Images of granulation

21. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 “Flowers” and Ribbons Produced by magnetic fields

22. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The photosphere is the lowest of three main layers in the Sun’s atmosphere The Sun’s atmosphere has three main layers: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona Everything below the solar atmosphere is called the solar interior The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the lowest layer in the solar atmosphere The photosphere undergoes “differential” rotation

23. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Limb Darkening The edges of the Sun appear darker than that seen “straight on” This is called limb darkening It is due to the fact that the temperature in the photosphere decreases with altitude

24. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Origin of Limb Darkening The light we see at the limb originated higher up in the atmosphere where it is cooler –Thus it will be less bright there

25. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Sunspots Low temperature regions –How do we know this ? Darkest part is called the “umbra” Just outside the umbra is the penumbra Associated with Intense magnetic fields

26. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05

27. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Sunspots Often Come in Groups

28. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Chromosphere Above the photosphere is a layer of less dense but higher temperature gases called the chromosphere “Color Sphere” characterized by spikes of rising gas Spicules extend upward from the photosphere into the chromosphere along the boundaries of supergranules

29. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Chromospheric Features: Plages and Filaments Filaments are dark, thread- like features seen in the red light of hydrogen (H- alpha). –Dense cooler material suspended at high altitudes by magnetic fields Plage (the French word for beach) are bright patches surrounding sunspots that are best seen in H-alpha. –associated with concentrations of magnetic fields

30. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Chromospheric Features: Prominences Same as filaments, except that they are seen from the side rather than “straight on”

31. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Corona The outermost layer of the solar atmosphere, the corona, is made of very high-temperature gases at extremely low density The solar corona blends into the solar wind at great distances from the Sun

32. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The 11-year Sunspot Cycle Number of Sunspots versus time – they come and go every 11 years Number of Sunspots versus latitude – forms a “butterfly pattern”

33. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Maunder Minimum Complete absence of sunspots for 50 years corresponds to a mini ice age There is a loose correlation between global man temperature and sunspots

34. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 These changes are caused by convection and the Sun’s differential rotation: The Solar Dynamo

35. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Buildup of magnetic field energy must be released – how? Coronal Mass Ejections and Flares –Releases an enormous amount of energy –A solar flare is a brief eruption of hot, ionized gases from a sunspot group –A coronal mass ejection is a much larger eruption that involves immense amounts of gas from the corona These storms can interact with the Earth and create huge geomagnetic storms They also accelerate particles to very high energies

36. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Coronal loops expand from the surface of the Sun following a solar explosion (solar flare) on April 21, 2002 TRACE movie

37. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05

38. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 The Halloween 2003 Flares were the Largest in Modern History Perhaps the most extreme flare ever seen erupted on Nov. 4... IMAGES: SOHO/NASA/ESA... and then this coronal mass ejection was hurled into space.

39. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05

40. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Aurora The pattern of auroral light around the north and south magnetic poles is called the auroral oval. It expands and contracts over a period of hours and days, depending on geomagnetic activity.

41. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Aurora in Tucson

42. Solar Science Workshop 6/8/05 Shock Waves in Space Analogy with sonic booms Can accelerate charged particles to very high energies Radiation Environment ! Space Weather