1. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Chapter 16 Collecting Structured Data

2. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Structured Self-Report Instruments Interview schedule Questionnaire

3. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Types of Questions in a Structured Instrument Open-ended questions –(e.g., Why did you decide to stop taking hormone replacement drugs?) Closed-ended (fixed alternative) questions –(e.g., Have you ever taken hormone replacement drugs: yes/no)

4. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions Dichotomous questions Multiple-choice questions Cafeteria questions Rank-order questions Forced-choice questions

5. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions (cont’d) Rating questions Checklists (matrix questions) Calendar questions Visual analogue scales

6. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Example of a Checklist

7. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Example of a Visual Analogue Scale

8. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Composite Scales and Other Structured Self-Reports Likert scales (summated rating scales) Semantic differential scales

9. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Likert (Summated Rating) Scales Consist of several declarative statements (items) expressing viewpoints Responses are on an agree/disagree continuum (usually 5 or 7 response options) Responses to items are summed to compute a total scale score

10. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Semantic Differential Scales Require ratings of various concepts Rating scales involve bipolar adjective pairs, with 7-point ratings Adjective pairs typically fall on three dimensions: Evaluation, potency, and activity Ratings for each dimension are summed to compute a total score for each concept

11. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Example of a Semantic Differential

12. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Self-Report Methods Cognitive and Neuropsychological Tests: Intelligence and aptitude tests (e.g., Stanford-Binet IQ test) Tests of neuropsychological function (e.g., Mini-Mental Status Examination) Achievement tests (e.g., NLN Achievement Test)

13. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Self-Report Methods (cont’d) Q Sorts: Participants sort a deck of cards into piles according to specific criteria Cards contain statements to be sorted on bipolar continuum (e.g., most like me/least like me) Usually 9 to 11 piles Usually 60 to 100 cards Produces ipsative measures

14. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Self-Report Methods (cont’d) Vignettes: Brief descriptions of situations to which respondents are asked to react Descriptions are usually written “stories” Respondents can be asked open-ended or closed-ended questions about their reactions Aspects of the vignettes can be experimentally manipulated

15. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Advantages of Questionnaires (Compared With Interviews) Lower costs Possibility of anonymity Lack of interviewer bias

16. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Advantages of Interviews (Compared With Questionnaires) Higher response rates Appropriate for larger audience Opportunities to clarify issues with respondents Greater depth of questioning possible Less risk of missing information

17. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Advantages of Interviews (Compared With Questionnaires) (cont’d) Greater control over ordering of questions Ability to control the sample Opportunity to collect supplementary data through observation

18. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Developing Structured Self-Report Instruments Identify data needs Develop, adapt, or borrow questions and scales Cluster related questions into separate modules Decide on sequencing of modules

19. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Developing Structured Self-Report Instruments (cont’d) Develop introductory statement (interviews) or cover letter (questionnaires) Have instrument reviewed by peers or advisers Pretest instrument Revise instrument based on reviewers’ comments and pretest results

20. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Tips for Wording Questions Clarity: Are questions worded clearly and unambiguously? Respondent capability: Can respondents understand? Are they qualified to provide information?

21. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Tips for Wording Questions (cont’d) Bias: Are response biases minimized? Sensitivity: Are questions worded sensitively, especially questions of a private nature?

22. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Tips for Preparing Response Alternatives, Closed-Ended Questions Coverage: Do options cover all significant alternatives? Overlap: Are response options mutually exclusive? Ordering: Are options ordered rationally? Length: Are options too long? Are all options of about equal length?

23. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Collecting Interview Data Interviewers should: be thoroughly trained be unbiased, put people at ease, and create a permissive atmosphere to encourage candor follow question wording precisely, no ad- libbing

24. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Collecting Interview Data (cont’d) Interviewers should: be thoroughly familiar with instrument to create a conversational tone use neutral probes to elicit complete and relevant responses

25. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Methods of Collecting Questionnaire Data In-person distribution Through the mail Via the Internet

26. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Example of a Cover Letter for a Mailed Questionnaire

27. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Evaluation of Structured Self-Reports Response Biases: Social desirability response bias Extreme responses Acquiescence response set (yea sayers) Nay sayers response set

28. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Methods of Recording Structured Observations Category systems and checklists Rating scales

29. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Sampling for Structured Observations Time Sampling—sampling of time intervals for observation Event Sampling—observations of integral events

30. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Observer Biases Enhancement of contrast effect Central tendency bias Assimilatory biases Halo effect Error of leniency Error of severity

31. Copyright © 2008 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Biophysiologic Measures In vivo measurements Performed directly within or on living organisms (e.g., blood pressure measures) In vitro measurements Performed outside the organisms body (e.g., urinalysis)