1. Overview of Temperature Measurement ME 115 Figures are from www.omega.com “Practical Guidelines for Temperature Measurement” unless otherwise notedwww.omega.com

2. Outline Thermocouples RTDs Thermistors Infrared Thermometry Thin-Film Heat Flux Gauge How to Choose

3. Thermocouples Seebeck effect –If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one end is heated, current will flow. –If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit voltage across the wires. –Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types. –For small  T’s, the relationship with temperature is linear –For larger  T’s, non-linearities may occur.

4. Measuring the Thermocouple Voltage If you attach the thermocouple directly to a voltmeter, you will have problems. You have just created another junction! Your displayed voltage will be proportional to the difference between J 1 and J 2 (and hence T 1 and T 2 ). Note that this is “Type T” thermocouple.

5. External Reference Junction A solution is to put J 2 in an ice-bath; then you know T 2, and your output voltage will be proportional to T 1 -T 2.

6. Other types of thermocouples Many thermocouples don’t have one copper wire. Shown below is a “Type J” thermocouple. If the two terminals aren’t at the same temperature, this also creates an error.

7. Isothermal Block The block is an electrical insulator but good heat conductor. This way the voltages for J 3 and J 4 cancel out. Thermocouple data acquisition set-ups include these isothermal blocks. If we eliminate the ice-bath, then the isothermal block temperature is our reference temperature

8. Software Compensation How can we find the temperature of the block? Use a thermister or RTD. Once the temperature is known, the voltage associated with that temperature can be subtracted off. Then why use thermocouples at all? –Thermocouples are cheaper, smaller, more flexible and rugged, and operate over a wider temperature range. Most data acquisition systems have software compensation built in.

9. Thermocouple Types If you do your own calibration, you can usually improve on the listed uncertainties.

10. Data Acquisition Systems for Thermocouples Agilent, HP, and National Instruments are probably the most popular DAQ systems Example National Instruments DAQ setup for thermocouples and costs (costs are from a system from a few years ago that we have in the lab)

11. RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) From Nicholas & White, Traceable Temperatures. Resistivity of metals is a function of temperature. Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide temperature range and has excellent stability. RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more expensive than thermocouples and have a longer response time.

12. Resistance Measurement Several different bridge circuits are used to determine the resistance. Bridge circuits help improve the accuracy of the measurements significantly. Bridge output voltage is a function of the RTD resistance.

13. Thermistors Thermistors also measure the change in resistance with temperature. Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and 1000 times more than thermocouples) and can detect very small changes in temperature. They are also very fast. Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control and any time very small temperature differences must be detected. They are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal oxides). The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-linear.

14. Thermistor Non-Linearity Standard thermistor curves are not provided as much as with thermocouples or RTDs. You often need a curve for a specific batch of thermistors.

15. Infrared Thermometry Infrared thermometers measure the amount of radiation emitted by an object. Peak magnitude is often in the infrared region. Surface emissivity must be known. This can add a lot of error. Reflection from other objects can introduce error as well. Surface whose temp you’re measuring must fill the field of view of your camera.

16. Benefits of Infrared Thermometry Can be used for –Moving objects –Non-contact applications where sensors would affect results or be difficult to insert or conditions are hazardous –Large distances –Very high temperatures Prices range from $500 to $6000. Accuracy is often in the 0.5- 1% of full range. Uncertainties of 10°F are common, but at temperatures of several hundred degrees, this is small.

17. Thin-Film Heat Flux Gauge Temperature difference across a narrow gap of known material is measured using a thermopile. A thermopile is a group of thermocouples combined in series to reduce uncertainty and measure a temperature difference. From Nicholas & White, Traceable Temperatures.

18. Thin-Film Heat Flux Gauge, cont. Difficulties with these gauges –The distance between the two sides is very small, so the temperature difference is small. The uncertainty in the temperature difference measurement can be large. –Watch where you place them. If the effective conductivity of the gauges is different than the conductivity of the material surrounding it, it will be either easier or harder for heat to pass through it. Heat will take the path of least resistance, so if you don’t position the gauge carefully, you may not be measuring the actual heat flux.

19. Choice Between RTDs, Thermocouples, Thermisters Cost – thermocouples are cheapest by far, followed by RTDs Accuracy – RTDs or thermisters Sensitivity – thermisters Speed - thermisters Stability at high temperatures – not thermisters Size – thermocouples and thermisters can be made quite small Temperature range – thermocouples have the highest range, followed by RTDs Ruggedness – thermocouples are best if your system will be taking a lot of abuse