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Fisheries

2. Fisheries

4. Traditional food production and distribution practices are unable to feed the world’s 6.3+ billion people
Will resources in the sea be able to provide enough food to alleviate future problems of malnutrition and starvation ?
Over 90% of the world's living biomass is contained in the oceans, which cover 71% of the Earth's surface. At present, we harvest about 0.2% of marine production. (You might think that there is room for growth).
Marine sources provide about 20% of the animal protein eaten by humans. Another 5% is provided indirectly via livestock fed with fish. 60% of fish consumption is by the developing world.
In Asia, about 1 billion people rely on fish as their primary source of protein.
Estimates suggest that seafood production from wild fish stocks will be insufficient to meet growing U.S. and Global demand for seafood products in the next century.

5. Figure 1: Families of economically important fish
Most valuable living marine resources:
Demersal fish
Pelagic fish
Crustaceans
Mollusks
Marine mammals
In this lecture period, we wish to learn:
What is the importance of fish in the diet of humans?
What are the important marine resources, and are they harvested sustainably?
What is the sustainable yield of the oceans?
What possible solutions might allow humans to more sensibly obtain food from the seas?   
1.  Fish Stocks and Fish Harvests
We can group economically important marine organisms in to five major families:
Demersal fish. These are bottom-living fish such as cod and haddock. These species tend to concentrate on broad continental shelves, especially of the North Atlantic. 
Pelagic fish. Pelagic fishes are species that inhabit the water column, such as herring, mackerel, anchovy, and tuna. The most spectacular fish catches are made of surface-shoaling pelagic species. Demersal fishes and Pelagic fishes combines make up the majority of the fish catch--about 72 million tons per year.
Crustaceans. This group consists of bottom-dwelling species (crabs and lobsters) as well as swimming invertebrates (krill, shrimp)Crustacean fisheries are important to many countries and regions, such as the Chesapeake Bay of the U.S. About 4 million tons of this group are harvested each year.Molluscs and Cephalopods. These include various species of squid, cuttlefish, and octopus. More cephalopod stocks are harvested by the Japanese than by any other nation. They also serve as an important source of protein for many Mediterranean and developing countries. About 2.5 million tons of cephalopods are harvested each year.
Marine mammals. This group has been heavily exploited for oil and meat, although they make a relatively small portion of the global fish catch. Following the commercial extinction of the large baleen whales such as the blue, humpback, and fin, smaller species such as the minke and sei are being taken. Dolphins and porpoises are hunted locally, particularly in some tropical archipelagos. 
Figure 1: Families of economically important fish
2. The Importance of Fish
Why are we concerned about the status of our global fisheries? In addition to more lofty environmental reasons, such as the preservation of biodiversity, humans have stock in the status of our world's fisheries. Here are some statistics to give you an idea of the scope of human dependence on marine life:
Over 90% of the world's living biomass is contained in the oceans, which cover 71% of the Earth's surface. At present, we harvest about 0.2% of marine production. (You might think that there is room for growth).
Marine sources provide about 20% of the animal protein eaten by humans. Another 5% is provided indirectly via livestock fed with fish. 60% of fish consumption is by the developing world.
In Asia, about 1 billion people rely on fish as their primary source of protein.
Estimates suggest that seafood production from wild fish stocks will be insufficient to meet growing U.S. and Global demand for seafood products in the next century.
The fishing enterprise employs some 200 million people worldwide.

6. Location of the world’s major commercial fisheries
Figure 6 shows the areas of highest phytoplankton production. It is these areas upon which we most rely for our fish. Blooming across large regions, phytoplankton form large fields that sustain the marine food web. A high proportion of these productive zones are found where the ocean is rich in minerals. 99% of the worldwide annual commercial ocean catch comes from coastal waters, within 200 nautical miles of the coastline. These narrow coastal fringes of the world's oceans are at once its most productive and most vulnerable zones.
coastal areas
upwelling

7. 500 species regularly caught Employs 200 million people worldwide
Commercial fishing:
500 species regularly caught
Employs 200 million people worldwide
In 2002 the world fishing fleet numbered about four million vessels.
In 2005:
100 million tons taken
$70 billion
3. Principles and Terms
First, we need to become familiar with some terms used when discussing fish populations and the fishing industry.
Stock. A stock is the portion of a species or population that is harvestable.
Stock Assessment is the estimation of abundance of a resource, rate at which it is being removed, and reference rates for sustainable yields.
Fishing Mortality Rate is a function of the fishing effort (amount, types of gear, etc.)
Harvest Rate The harvest rate is the fraction or amount of stock harvested per year.
Production Rate. The production rate is the sum of growth in weight of individual fish, plus the addition of biomass from new recruits, minus loss in biomass to natural mortality.
Production Function shows the relationship between production rate and fishing effort. As effort increases, the biomass drops and the production function typically goes through a fairly stable maximum. 
To aid in fish management, we can assess stocks by using a combination of three methods: 
biological sampling
annual catch statistics
catch per unit effort statistics 

8. Global Fish Catch

10. World Commercial Catch of Marine Fishes, Crustaceans, and Mollusks (1995)
cod
Species Group Millions of Metric Tons, Live Wt.
Herrings, sardines, anchovies 22.0
Jacks, mullets, sauries
Mollusks
Cods, hake, haddock
Redfish, basses, conger eels
Crustaceans
Tunas, bonitos, billfish
Mackerel, snooks, cutlass fishes
Flounders, halibut, soles
Miscellaneous marine fishes 17.7
Total (excluding marine mammals) 94.6

11. Food & Non-Food Products
from the Sea

12. Non-Food Products from the Sea Bioactive Compounds
Algin & Agar: products from seaweed
Whales: Oil for lubrication, in cosmetics, bones for fertilizer
Seals and sea lions: furs
Bioactive Compounds
Anti-viral (e.g., acyclovir)
Anti-tumor (e.g., bryotstatin from a bryozoan, Didemnin-B from a tunicate)
Insecticide (e.g., Padan from a marine annelid worm)
B. Algin & Agar: products from seaweed
Algin used to stiffen fabrics, as an emulsifier in salad dressings and paints, in ice cream to prevent formation of large ice crystals
Agar and derivatives used extensively in microbiology and molecular biology as a gelling agent
C. Whales: Oil for lubrication, in cosmetics, bones for fertilizer
D. Seals and sea lions: furs

13. Food from the Sea Seaweeds
Invertebrates (e.g., oysters, clams, crabs, lobster, squid, etc.)
Fish (herring, mackerel, haddock, cod, tuna, mahi-mahi, etc.)
Whales
Seaweeds
Invertebrates (e.g., oysters, clams, crabs, lobster, squid, etc.)
Fish (herring, mackerel, haddock, cod, tuna, mahi-mahi, etc.)
Whales
1. Commercial whaling moratorium pronounced by the International Whaling Commission effective 1987
2. Japan continued whaling Minke under provision for scientific research, but meat and blubber was sold at market
3. Beginning in 1993, Norway resumed whaling Minke 4. In 2000, Japan expanded to Blue and Bryde‘s whales

14. Fisheries management
Fisheries management seeks to maintain a long-term fishery by:
Assessing ecosystem health
Determining fish stocks
Analyzing fishing practices
Enforcing catch limits
Fisheries management does not regulate the number of fishing vessels

15. Fisheries Mismanagement

16. Fisheries mismanagement
Overfishing
Commercial extinction
Bycatch (27 million metric tons annually)
Targeting smaller species on the low end of the food chain

17. Bycatch by Gear Type for 2002/2003

18. Peru Anchovy Fishery
To illustrate how overcapacity works, we will study the example of the Peruvian anchovy, which in boom years was the largest new fishery in the world.
Figure 4: Annual catch of the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery from
Before 1950, fish in Peru were harvested mainly for human consumption. The total annual catch was 86,000 tons. In 1953, the first fish meal plants were developed. Within 9 years, Peru became the number one fishing nation in the world by volume. This lead to a period of boom years in Peru. 1,700 purse seiners exploited a 7-month fishing season.
Fearing a crash, in 1970, a group of scientists in the Peruvian government issued a warning. They estimated that the sustainable yield was around 9.5 million tons, a number that was currently being surpassed (see Figure 4). The government turned a deaf ear toward its own scientists. Due to the collapse of the Norwegian and Icelandic herring fisheries the previous year, Peru was more poised than ever to earn yet more hard currency. Therefor, in 1970, the government allowed a harvest of 12.4 million tons. The following year, 10.5 million tons were harvested. In 1972, the combination of an El Nino year and the prolonged overfishing led to a complete collapse of the fishery. It has not recovered.

19. Peru Anchovy Fishery Upwelling zone off Peru Fishery began 1950
Greatest fish catches for any single species
Fish exported for domestic animal feed
Fishery collapsed due to El Niño and overfishing

20. Peru Anchovy Fishery
= El Niño
1957
1965
1972
1976

21. Peru Anchovy Fishery Normal Year El Niño Year
a) Schematic diagram of El Niño effects on the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery. During 'normal' years, the trade winds move waters away from the coast of Peru, bringing nutrient rich waters up from depth to replace the waters moving offshore. These nutrients provide nourishment for plankton and serve as the basis of the food chain which drives the Peruvian fishery. As the trade winds relax during an El Niño, less nutrients are brought from depth and the productivity of the region is diminished. During the most severe El Niños, the productivity may be so low that the fishery collapses. A secondary complication arises in that anchovy prefer a particular water temperature, as the eastern Pacific warms, fish may school together in pockets of cooler nutrient rich waters, leaving them open for predation.

22. Collapse of New England Fisheries
Cod, haddock, ocean perch, herring, mackerel, blue fin tuna
George’s Bank- highly productive, nutrient rich environment
Prior to 1976, Russia, Japan, Norway, & West Germany fished in Georges Bank

23. Collapse of New England Fisheries
Magnuson Act passed & prevented foreigners from fishing in U.S. waters
Fishery technology intensified and resulted in overfishing
Harvests were beyond the max. sustainable yield
Georges Bank closes after collapse
Some fish stocks begin to rebound

24. Fisheries Management Council
The Magnuson Act created 8 regional fisheries management councils for U.S. waters and regions:
New England FMC
(Saugus, MA)
Mid-Atlantic FMC
(Dover, DE)
South Atlantic
(Charleston, SC)
Gulf of Mexico FMC
(Tampa, FL)
Caribbean
(San Juan, PR)
North Pacific FMC
(Anchorage, AK)
Pacific FMC
(Portland, OR)
Western Pacific FMC
(Honolulu, HI)

25. Fisheries Management Plans
Congress directed the Councils to manage federal fisheries by creating
Fisheries Management Plans or “FMPs” by:
1. Identifying fish species that need management
2. Analyzing the biological, environmental, economic and social factors that affect the fishery
3. Preparing (and modifying, as necessary) an FMP to protect fishery resources while maintaining opportunities for domestic commercial and recreational fishing

26. Salmon Anadromous fish that migrate from sw to fw to spawn
Spawning grounds affected by dam construction
Aquaculture and restocking efforts

27. Fish Ladders
This diagram shows how salmon and steelhead pass dams on the mainstem Columbia and Snake rivers. Juvenile fish migrating downstream can pass over the spillway, through the turbines or via bypass facilities. Because turbine passage is the most lethal, screens are installed in front of the turbine entrances to deflect juvenile fish into the bypass facilities, which channel the fish safely around the dam. Adult fish are attracted to the falling water of the ladder. They climb up the ladder — like a gently inclining, water-filled stairway — and over the dam.

28. Alaska Fisheries Halibut and sablefish IFQ Limited entry c1930’s
IFQ permit authorizes participation in fixed gear harvest of Alaskan halibut and most sablefish. Permits are not specific to vesselsNot everyone who owns a boat has the right to venture out into coastal waters and fish for commercial gain.
The Alaska Department of Fish and Game and other agencies regulate the fishing industry by two methods: limited entry and Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQs).
Limited entry refers to the permit process each boat owner must undergo before legally fishing in Alaska's waters. A set number of non-expiring fishing permits were issued years ago. Each permit gives the owner the right to fish a specific fishery in a specific region, so a holder of a herring permit can't fish for salmon, for example. Owners of these permits are allowed to sell them on the open market , enabling new fishermen to enter the industry. The price of entry doesn't come cheap; depending on the region and type of fish, a permit can sell for as much as $300,000.
By limiting the number of permits issued, the state can assure that fish stocks don't become too depleted, as happened to several fisheries before the permit system was implemented. Because there are a limited number of fishing vessels in a particular area, fishermen are assured of limited competition and a steady flow of fish during the season. The limited number of boats in each fishery can also make fishing very lucrative. With limited competition from other boats and a well-managed fish population, deckhands on some of the better boats make well over $6,000 a month, depending on the catch.
Individual Fishing Quotas are a relatively new system for controlling harvests in the halibut and groundfish industry. Under this system, fishing for halibut and sablefish is limited to boats that have been granted IFQs. An IFQ grants a quota of fish to each boat for the entire season, and these fish can be caught at any time during a season lasting most of the year. Previously, many more boats were allowed to fish but were limited to very short, sporadic seasons. See the section on halibut fishing to see how the IFQ system affects your employment outlook.
The Department of Fish and Game strictly regulates fishing seasons by patrolling crowded fishing areas and using data collected by domestic observers posted on selected fishing vessels.
The department continually announces eagerly anticipated opening and closing dates for particular fisheries. Depending on the fishery and region, boats are strictly limited to a certain number of days (sometimes hours) they can fish in a given season. Some fisheries are year-round; others are only open for a number of days or hours. For example, a salmon gillnetter in Southeast Alaska generally fishes one to two twelve- or twenty-four-hour openings a week during the summer months, while salmon trollers get to fish almost every day. Of course, trollers generally catch fish at a far slower rate than do gillnetters. In contrast, the herring season might consist of only one opening for the whole year. Many herring openings for the purse seiner fleet last for less than twelve hours as boats swarm over hot spots trying to catch as many fish as possible in only half a day!
These regulations are strictly enforced for good reason. They help to assure that overfishing does not occur and that there will be healthy harvests and satisfied fishermen for many years to come.
Halibut and sablefish
IFQ
Limited entry
c1930’s

29. Shark Overfishing Slow growth Low reproductive rate
Late sexual maturity

30. Orange Roughy
Distribution: world wide, high concentrations in New Zealand
Found: m depth
Life span: slow-growing, long-lived, ~150 years
Size: cm
Diet: prawns, fish, & squid
Reproductive age: years old

32. Fishing Techniques

33. Fishing Methods Harpoon - whales, swordfish, bluefin tuna
Pole and line - mahi-mahi and used for tuna extensively in the 50‘s
Longline - swordfish, tuna (pelagic); cod, halibut (bottom)
Trolling - salmon, albacore, mahi-mahi
Drift (gill) netting - various pelagic fish
Trawl - anchovies (pelagic); cod, halibut (bottom)
Purse seine - sardines, herring, mackerel
Traps and Pots - Crabs, lobster, rock fish

34. Drift Net net size: 20 m x 65 km
A huge fleet of factory ships uses sophisticated electronic detection devices and aircrafts to find large schools of fish. Each ship then launches fast, small catcher boats to set hundreds to thousands of miles of drift nets, weighted to stay at a desired depths. After drifting overnight, the nets are hauled in by the factory ships, and the catch is processed on board by canning or freezing. Large scale drift net fishing was banned in 1993, but it continues in the Pacific and has begun in the Atlantic.
net size:
20 m x 65 km

35. Longlining

36. Gill net
                                                                                                                                
Bottom-dwelling fish

37. Purse seine

38. Trawl bottom midwater http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUHcD_jTgVA

39. Before trawl After trawl
As a result of scientific studies showing that bottom trawling kills vast numbers of corals, sponges, fishes and other animals, bottom trawling has been banned in a growing number of places in recent years. Now satellite images show that spreading clouds of mud remain suspended in the sea long after the trawler has passed.
But what satellites can see is only the "tip of the iceberg," because most trawling happens in waters too deep to detect sediment plumes at the surface, say scientists speaking a symposium session called Dragnet: Bottom Trawling, the World's Most Severe and Extensive Seafloor Disturbance at the American Association for the Advancement of Science 2008 Annual Meeting February 15. Speakers at the session include Dr. Elliott Norse, President of Marine Conservation Biology Institute in Bellevue WA; John Amos, President of SkyTruth in Shepherdstown WV, Dr. Les Watling, Professor of Zoology at the University of Hawaii in Manoa HI; and Susanna Fuller, Ph.D. Candidate in Biology at Dalhousie University, Halifax NS.
"Bottom trawling is the most destructive of any actions that humans conduct in the ocean," said Dr. Watling. "Ten years ago, Elliott Norse and I calculated that, each year, worldwide, bottom trawlers drag an area equivalent to twice the lower 48 states. Most of that trawling happens in deep waters, out of sight. But now we can more clearly envision what trawling impacts down there by looking at the sediment plumes that are shallow enough for us to see from satellites," he said.
"Bottom-trawling repeatedly plows up the seafloor over large areas of the ocean" said Mr. Amos. "Until recently, the impact was basically hidden from view. But new tools -- especially Internet-based image sites, like Google Earth -- allow everyone to see for themselves what's happening. In shallow waters with muddy bottoms, trawlers leave long, persistent trails of sediment in their wake."
Susanna Fuller studies impacts of trawling on sponges in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean. "Seafloor animals such as glass sponges are particularly vulnerable to bottom trawling," said Ms. Fuller, a graduate student of Professor Ransom Myers. Dr. Myers, who died last year, had published a series of papers showing that overfishing has eliminated 90 percent of the world's large predatory fishes and is devastating marine ecosystems.
"What is amazing is the level of damage these types of animals have suffered, after the cod fishery in Canada was closed. We immediately started trawling deeper with no restrictions, and continue to do so," she said. "There are ways to catch fish that are less harmful to the world's vanishing marine life. We need to start protecting the seafloor by using fishing gear, besides bottom trawls, especially in the deep sea. It's the only thing left," she said.
"For years marine scientists have been telling the world that fishing has harmed marine biodiversity more than anything else," said Dr. Norse. "And it's clear that trawling causes more damage to marine ecosystems than any other kind of fishing. Now, as the threats of ocean acidification and melting sea ice are adding insult to injury, we have to reduce harm from trawling to have any hope of saving marine ecosystems," Dr. Norse said.
Scientific findings about trawling impacts have led to increasing restrictions on this industrial fishing method. In 2005, the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean banned trawling in the Mediterranean Sea below depths of 1,000 meters, and the United States closed vast deep-sea areas off Alaska to bottom trawling. In 2006, the United Nations General Assembly began deliberations on a trawling moratorium on the high seas, which cover 45% of the Earth's surface, and South Pacific nations effectively put an end to trawling in an area amounting to 14 percent of the Earth's surface.
There are tens of thousands of trawlers worldwide. They fish for shrimp and finfishes. Some bottom trawling operations catch 20 pounds of "bykill" for every pound of targeted species.

40. Trawl from space
Gulf of Mexico, near Louisiana coast. Individual vessels can be seen as bright spots at end of sediment trails. Other bright spots are fixed oil and gas production platforms. One sediment trail can be traced for 27 km. Assuming a standard trawling speed of 2.5 knots, sediment from this trawl is visibly persistent for nearly 6 hours. Water depth <20m. Large, indistinct bright blue patches at lower left and upper right are cloud/haze. (Credit: Landsat)

41. Fisheries Problems
& Solutions

42. Fisheries Problems & Solutions
Maximum sustainable yield: maximum amount of fish that can be harvested without depleting future stocks
World‘s maximum sustainable yield estimated at 100 to 135 million metric tons
Present harvests are at about 100 million metric tons
For fisheries where numbers available, estimated that 45% are currently over-fished
A number of fisheries have already collapsed (Anchovy fishery off Peru, Cod fishery in the N. Atlantic)

43. Fisheries Problems & Solutions
F. Bycatch (or bykill): animals unintentionally killed during harvest of the target species
Trawling: Bycatch in shrimp trawling is very high (125 to 830% of the catch is discarded as bycatch), turtles often caught in trawls.
SOLUTION: trawls with trap doors to let turtles escape

44. Purse seine: Tuna known to hang out under pods of dolphins, nets set around pods of dolphins would result in many drowning.
SOLUTIONS: Nets not set around dolphin pods and/or employ — “backing down”, a technique that lowers upper edge of net letting dolphins escape
Dolphins caught in tuna net

45. Fisheries Problems & Solutions
Driftnets: indiscriminate entangling of many sorts of marine animals
SOLUTION: banned in oceanic fisheries (but some countries still using them)

46. Fisheries Problems & Solutions
Long lining: Many albatross drown trying to snatch bait from long lines being deployed. snagged on hooks and pulled under.
SOLUTION: deploy in the dark or with special rig to let line out under water.

47. Global swordfish catch
Swordfish are distributed worldwide.  The north Atlantic population is considered one interbreeding unit that is "managed" as a single "stock."  If they live long enough (perhaps 25 years), they can reach 2,200 lbs.  Like other billfish, all the large individuals are females since male swordfish rarely exceed 200 lbs. The first recorded sale of Atlantic swordfish was in The average size landed commercially has declined from lbs. in 1861 (newspaper story), lbs. by the turn of the 20th century, over 266 lbs. in 1961 (when longlining largely replaced harpoon, hand line and rod and reel as the primary commercial gear used) to 88 lbs. today.  The international longline fleets target swordfish and tunas because they are the most valuable commercially. Most swordfish - almost two of every three - are now caught before they have a chance to spawn.  On average, females do not mature until age 5 and about 150 lbs. and males mature at 3 years and 72 lbs.  Of the females caught commercially, 83% are still immature.  ICCAT's minimum size limit is now 41 lbs. (= 33 lbs. dressed weight), and U.S. longliners routinely "discard" 40-50% of the swordfish they catch because they are too small to sell legally.  Due to the trauma involved in longline retrieval (e.g., jaws and gills torn apart) virtually all of these fish (age 1 or 2) are either dead already or die soon thereafter.  In 1998, the U.S. fleet "discarded" 433 metric tons of such baby swordfish. This is the result of many (smaller) vessels fishing in the swordfish's primary nursery areas, particularly those surrounding Florida (and in the fall, off Charleston, SC).  See below for maps showing the locations of the spawning and nursery areas of this population.  The largest U.S. vessels (the "distant water fleet") have had to travel farther each year to find sufficient swordfish.  They now target them in their primary spawning areas between the Caribbean Islands and two large areas well east and south of the Virgin Islands in the Atlantic (the sites of major surface currents as shown below) during the early spring, then pursue the adults to their primary feeding areas on the Grand Banks until late fall.  At the bottom of this page you can find links to the maps showing where longline effort and catch is concentrated. After depleting the North Atlantic population, the international longline fleets moved to the South Atlantic and to the Pacific Ocean.  However, after only a few years, most U.S. vessels left the Pacific and are concentrating on the south Atlantic population (see below).  From the evidence we have, it is reasonable to conclude that all swordfish populations are in serious trouble, as noted below for the Atlantic.
Ave. wt. in lbs
year

48. Mariculture

49. Mariculture or Aquaculture
(marine agriculture)- farming finfish, shellfish and algae under favorable conditions
Big Island, Kona, Tilapia 49

50. One of every four fish eaten today was raised in either a fw or sw fish farm.

51. 84% of the 6 million to 7 million tons of seafood consumed each year in the U.S. is imported . About ½ comes from aquaculture.
H. Jones, Time, 2011.

54. Aquaculture also produces:
Bait fish
Ornamental or aquarium fish
Aquatic animals used to augment natural populations
Algae for chemical extraction
Pearl oysters

55. History: 2000 years ago in Egypt, Rome, China <2000 years in Hawaii
600 years ago France developed mussel aquaculture
500 years ago Europe developed the idea of using pond fertilizer to promote plankton growth
400 years ago China discovered that oysters would grow on bamboo stakes
1960’s- Europe and U.S. catfish and salmon
History:

56. Hawaiian Fish Ponds
Introduction Hawaiian fishponds represent more than a way of farming. They portray the strength and the unity that the Hawaiian people had. The remnants of fishponds remind us of the past and paints a picture of humanity harmonized with nature. To attempt to revive the remnant fishponds could be impossible because of the laws imposed by the government, the cost of repairing the pond and the labor involved. At present time, there is 370 fishponds that can be seen by the remnants of rockwalls and makaha openings.(DHM Planners, 1989) Most of the remnants are overgrown with weeds, swamp-infested or sadly eroded. There are five different types of Hawaiian fishponds: Loko kuapa, loko Ôumeiki, loko puÕuone, loko iÕa kalo and loko wai. Loko kuapa and loko umeiki are seawater ponds, loko puÕuone is a brackish water pond, loko iÕa kalo and loko wai are freshwater ponds. Each pond has different characteristics and locations. Some ponds, usually a loko kuapa, were made kapu, or prohibited, by the konohiki, the chief of a certain land division, or an alii, the chief of the island, because of the tasty and choice fish such as the ulua (crevally), kumu (goatfish), kahala (amberjack), manini and palani (surgeon), oio (bonefish), and uhu (parrotfish) raised in the ponds. These fish were kept in a separate pond to breed and raised so they could easily be harvested by hand. Other fish were also raised in the pond. The most common fish raised in a fishpond was ÔamaÕama (mullet) and awa (milkfish). An idealistic ahupuaÕa had each type of pond from the forestream to the ocean. (see figure 1) There were also other things that the people could not do in reguards to fishponds . It was kapu for women to walk on the pond wall during their menstruation, Òlest the kuapa [wall] be defiled.Ó (Kamakau, 1869b.) The aliis also prohibited the disposal of human, animal, and kitchen refuse into the fishponds.

57. The Ahupua‘a

58. The pond’s walls were made from lava boulders and coral.
Molokai: South Coast
The pond’s walls were made from lava boulders and coral.
Walls keep the fish inside while allowing the sea water to ebb in and out.
The ancient fishponds of Hawai'i were one of the most significant and successful aquacultural achievements in history. They were a major source of protein and played an important role in the spiritual and cultural lives of the Hawaiian people. Presently, many Hawaiian seashore fishponds have disappeared or are being threatened. By learning about fishponds, we will be able to gain insight on how fishponds were used by the early Hawaiians and how we could best protect them now.

59. Types of fish raised in ponds:
ulua (papio)
owama (goatfish)
kahala (amberjack)
manini (convict tang)
palani (surgeon)
oio (bonefish)
uhu (parrotfish)
These fish were kept in a separate pond to breed and raised so they could easily be harvested by hand.

60. Criteria for selecting species for farming: - inexpensive to grow
- grows quickly
- high sales price
- resistant to disease and parasites
tilapia
barramundi
catfish

61. Problems associated with Mariculture:
Won’t make a dent in the shortfall in food supply
Fish food- fish meal
Pollution
Escapees
Loss of natural habitat
Loss of genetic diversity
High stress overcrowding pens
High concentration of pathogens/parasites
Aquaculture is rapidly increasing its annual global harvest and seems to offer hope for increased food production. However, for some of the more than 210 farmed aquatic animal and plant species,8 particularly salmon and shrimp, the methods currently used require high energy inputs and can cause environmental degradation similar to industrial/chemical agriculture or factory farming of livestock. These are:
Loss of natural habitat;
Loss of genetic diversity;
Replacement of self reliant indigenous fisheries with multinational corporations;
Pollution from concentrated sewage can smother the benthic (bottom dwelling) organisms, over fertilize the water and lead to toxic algae blooms (A single fin fish farm may output as much daily sewage as a small city);
High stress overcrowding contributes to epidemic disease remedied by routine vaccinations and antibiotic treatments (cultivating drug resistant pathogens and impacting other aquatic wildlife);
high concentrations of pathogens/parasites on the farm can infect the natural environment threatening local species; 4,5 escaped domesticated farm fish can threaten local species with extinction through genetic pollution.

62. Overcrowded Pens
Advocates for fish farming say aquaculture would take pressure off wild stocks, enhance recreational fishing opportunities and create new jobs in the United States, where about 80 percent of consumed seafood is imported -- about half of it raised through aquaculture. The gulf council has predicted that the plan would permit between five and 20 offshore operations in the next 10 years, producing up to 64 million pounds of seafood.

63. Parasites & Disease
Salmon with lice

64. Pollution Under a salmon farm cage

65. Fish Vaccination

66. Integrated Aquaculture
Aquaponics

67. Hawaii open ocean aquaculture
HOT’s business is to deploy large fish cages some 65 feet below the surface in state waters off Kona, and to grow locally grown Ahi fingerlings using cutting edge technology in the feed, the cages and in the mechanisms that drive and hold them at their designated locations.
Kona Blue Water Farms LLC says it will slash farming by 40 percent annually, from about 500 tons to 300 tons.
The company sells amberjack, which is also known as kahala or Hawaiian yellowtail, under the brand name Kona Kampachi.
Kona Blue says it must become more efficient, largely by reducing the amount of labor required to feed the fish and clean the cages.
Kona Blue is seeking permits to increase the size and reduce the number of pens it uses. It also plans to test a variety of cage materials and designs to improve efficiency.
The company is moving forward with plans to establish a fish farm off Mexico.
What is the size of Hawaii's aquaculture industry?
There were currently more than 100 aquafarms in the state. In 2003, they produced products with a farm-gate value of $27.7 million. Research, training, and technology transfer activities added an estimated $10 million, for a total industry value of about $38 million. back to top
6. What species of plants and animals are being raised?
Aquaculture production is generally divided into four product groups, with a total of over 30 aquatic plant and animal species are being raised for research or commercial production. Product groups include: Shellfish (marine shrimp, freshwater prawns and abalone); Finfish (Pacific threadfin or moi, tilapia, catfish, carp, flounder, sturgeon, amberjack, snappers, and grouper); Algae (seaweeds and microalgae) and "Other" (non-food products such broodstock shrimp, oysters and clams seed, pearl oysters and a variety of freshwater and marine aquarium fish and invertebrates). back to top
7. Which species group is the largest in terms of total state production?
Algae has the highest production value of all product groups, followed by Shellfish, "Other" and Finfish. The microalgae, Spirulina (sold as a health food), and the popular seaweed, ogo or Gracilaria (sold as a sea vegetable), totaled $11.7 million. The value of finfish production is projected to increase sharply in the coming years due to the expansion of large-scale offshore cage culture. Hawaii's aquaculture industry generated a record $34.7 million in sales revenue in 2008, up 38 percent from $25.1 million in
Mio, big eye tuna, yellow tail
$34.7 million in 2008

68. Owners of a 10-year-old commercial fish farm want to quadruple production at their operation off Ewa Beach, where they raise moi in open-ocean cages.
Hukilau Foods, which is owned by Grove Farm Co. of Lihue, Kauai, is seeking permits to expand its state ocean lease from 28 acres to 61 acres. That would enable the Kailua-based company to quadruple the volume of its cages and increase production from 1.2 million pounds to 5 million pounds annually.
The expansion requires four permits, which the company applied for late last month — two from the state Department of Land and Natural Resources, one from the state Health Department and a federal permit.
Hukilau, which grew out of a University of Hawaii project in the late 1990s, expects the expansion to generate $20 million in annual revenue, with wholesale prices of about $4 a pound.
The company sells its product almost entirely within the state, to restaurants and markets, said founder, co-owner and CEO Randy Cates.
Hukilau’s current operation includes four submerged cages, each measuring 3,000 cubic meters in size. Its permit applications seek approval to replace the existing cages with eight new ones that are double the current cage sizes. The larger set would still be two miles offshore in Mamala Bay.
The expansion is expected to cost $13 million, which Cates said will be financed through federal loans and private funds. He expects the permitting process to be completed in the first quarter of next year.
Hukilau also is building a fingerling (baby fish) hatchery in Campbell Industrial Park in Kapolei. The facility is expected to be completed this year and produce about 10 million fingerlings annually.
If approved, Hukilau Foods’ expansion would follow the downsizing of Kona Blue Water Farms, Hawaii’s only other open-ocean fish farm. The Kona farm announced earlier this year that it will reduce annual production of its farmed Hawaiian yellowtail from 1 million pounds to 600,000 pounds.
Hukilau Foods grew out of a UH aquaculture research project that Cates, a former commercial fisherman, took over in He formed Cates International in 2000 to convert the pilot open-ocean farm into a business.
In 2007, Grove Farm Co. acquired Cates’ company and renamed it Grove Farm Fish and Poi LLC, which does business as Hukilau Foods.

69. Artificial Reefs Improve the local marine bio-density
attract schools of fish
providing habitats for the colonization of commercially valuable species
improve the local inshore marine harvest
May wash up
on beaches
tires
ship wrecks
construction rubble

70. T T T T

71. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument is the single largest conservation area under the U.S. flag, and one of the largest marine conservation areas in the world. It encompasses 139,797 square miles of the Pacific Ocean (105,564 square nautical miles) - an area larger than all the country's national parks combined.
The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument was created by Presidential proclamation on June 15, 2006.
The name Papahānaumokuākea (pronounced Pa-pa-ha-now-mo-ku-ah-kay-uh) comes from an ancient Hawaiian tradition concerning the
genealogy and formation of the Hawaiian Islands. Papahānaumoku (who is personified in the earth) and Wākea (who is personified in the
expansive sky) were two of the most recognized ancestors of our people. Their union resulted in the creation or “birthing” of the entire
archipelago. “Papa” which means “foundational earth,” provides the imagery of the numerous low flat islands that stretch across into the
northwest. “Ākea” provides the imagery of the “expanse – of space.” From Mauna “Ākea” on Hawai’i Island to the low flat “Papa” of the
northwest, the physical features define our homeland and Hawaiian identity. The preservation of these names, together, as
Papahānaumokuākea, strengthens Hawai‘i’s cultural foundation and grounds us to an important part of our historical past.

72. Hawaii
Seafood Guide
2007

73. Hawaii Seafood Guide 2007 Catfish (farmed imported) Chilean Seabass
Crab, Kona
Groupers (NWHI)
Lobster (American/Maine)
Octopus (Hawaii)
Squid
Trevally/Jack (Hawaii)
Tuna, canned
Tuna, Skipjack (Hawaii longline)
Chilean Seabass
Cod, Atlantic
Mahi mahi (imported longline)
Salmon (farmed)
Sharks
Shrimp (imported)
Swordfish (imported)
Orange roughy
Tuna, Albacore (worldwide except Hawaii)
Tuna Bige Eye (longline)
Tuna bluefin
Barramundi (U.S. farmed)
Clams (farmed)
Crab, dungeness
Halibut (Pacific)
Salmon(wild)
Swordfish (Hawaii)
Tilapia (farmed)
Skip-jack tuna (troll/poll, handline)

74. Inquiry What problems are associated with aquaculture?
What does fisheries sustainability mean?
What occurred shortly after the Magnuson Act was passed?
Define the EEZ.
What contributed to the demise of the Peru anchovy fishery?
Discuss technology changes in the fishing industry in the last 100 years.