1. On Gallager’s problem: New Bounds for Noisy Communication. Navin Goyal & Mike Saks Joint work with Guy Kindler Microsoft Research

2. Ambrose Bierce 1842 – 1914(?) “Noise is t he chief product and the authenticating sign of civilization”  In CS: Noise appears in the study of information theory, network design, learning theory, cryptography, quantum computation, hardness of approximation, theory of social choice, embeddings of metric spaces, privacy in databases…

3. In this talk  [El Gamal ’84]: The noisy broadcast network model.  [Gallager ’88]: n ¢ loglog(n) algorithm for identity.  Main result: Gallager’s algorithm is tight.  Proof by reduction: Generalized noisy decision trees (gnd-trees). Lower bound for gnd-trees.

4. First, a Fourier-analytic result  Definition (Fourier): Let f:{-1,1} n ! {-1,1} be a Boolean function. The i’th Fourier coefficient of f: f i = E x » U [f(x) ¢ x i ].  [Talagrand ’96]: Let p= Pr x » U [f(x)=1], (p<1/2). Then  i (f i ) 2 · p 2 log(1/p).  Crucial for our result! (as hinted in slide #26..)

5. What next: What next: Communication under noise - examples The noisy broadcast model Gallager: the algorithm and the problem Gnd-trees: Generalized Noisy Decision Trees Our results About the proof

6. 01100 Noisy computation: case 1 1.Noiseless channel: n transmissions. 2.naïve: n ¢ log(n) (error is polynomially small in n) 3.[Shannon ’48]: c ¢ n (error is exponentially small in n) Aggregation of bits: Big advantage

7. y=10101 Noisy computation: case 2 x=01100 Goal: compute f(x,y) 1.Noiseless channel: k transmissions. 2. naïve: k ¢ log(k) 3.[Schulman ’96]: c ¢ k (error is exponentially small in k)

8. The Noisy Broadcast Model [El Gamal ’84] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 x1x1x1x1 x1x1x1x1 x5x5x5x5 x5x5x5x5 x4x4x4x4 x4x4x4x4 x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3 x2x2x2x2 x2x2x2x2 x6x6x6x6 x6x6x6x6 x7x7x7x7 x7x7x7x7 x8x8x8x8 x8x8x8x8 x9x9x9x9 x9x9x9x9 x 10  Input: x 1,..,x n.  One bit transmitted at a time.  Error rate:  (small const.).  Goal: compute g(x 1,..,x n ).  In this talk: we want to compute x 1,..,x n. Order of transmissions is predefined 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

9. Some history  Computing identity: Naïve solution: n log n (repetition) [Gallager ’88]: n loglog n.  [Yao 97]: Try thresholds first.  [KM ’98]: Any threshold in O(n).  In adversarial model: [FK ’00]: OR in O(n ¢ log * n). [N ’04]: OR in O(n). x1x1x1x1 x1x1x1x1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 x5x5x5x5 x5x5x5x5 x4x4x4x4 x4x4x4x4 x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3 x2x2x2x2 x2x2x2x2 x6x6x6x6 x6x6x6x6 x7x7x7x7 x7x7x7x7 x8x8x8x8 x8x8x8x8 x9x9x9x9 x9x9x9x9 x1x1x1x1 x1x1x1x1 Fails for “adversarial noise”. Gallager’s problem: Can this be made linear?

10. what’s next: what’s next: Communication under noise - examples The noisy broadcast model Gallager: an algorithm and a problem Gnd-trees: Generalized Noisy Decision Trees Statement of results About the proof

11. g(x)=y g(x)=.. f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 2 ) Generalized Noisy Decision (gnd) Trees  Input: x, but access is to noisy copies x 1,x 2, x 3 … x i =x © N i (N i flips x j w.p.  ) x i =x © N i (N i flips x j w.p.  )  Any Boolean queries! =“01” v =“01” f v : Boolean function Goal: compute g(x), Goal: compute g(x), minimizing depth(T) minimizing depth(T)

12. Generalized Noisy Decision (gnd) Trees  Noisy decision trees [FPRU ‘94]: Query noisy coordinates of x. Query noisy coordinates of x.  Identity computable in nlog(n). g(x)=y g(x)=.. f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 2 )

13. [FPRU] O(n) [FPRU] Some bounds for noisy trees functionnoisy trees OR [FPRU]  n) [FPRU] PARITY [FPRU]  n log n) [FPRU] MAJORITY [FPRU]  n log n) [FPRU]  n) [GKS] [KM * ]  n) [KM * ] IDENTITY [FPRU]  n log n) [FPRU]  n log n) [GKS] gnd-trees g(x)=y g(x)=.. f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 2 ) (n)(n) (n)(n)

14. Our results  Main theorem: bound for identity in n.b. network.  Main theorem:   (n ¢ loglog(n)) bound for identity in n.b. network.  Lower-bound for gnd-tree :   nlog(n) Lower bound for computing identity in generalized decision trees.  Reduction theorem: kn time protocol in  -noise n.b. network ) 2kn depth gnd-tree for noise  ck.  Proof of main theorem: 2kn ¸  ck n log n 2k(1/  ) ck ¸ log n k=  ( loglog(n) )

15. what’s next: what’s next: About communication under noise The noisy broadcast model Gallager: the algorithm and the problem Generalized Noisy Decision Trees (gnd-trees) Our results About the proof

16. About the proof: About the proof: The reduction:  A series of transformations from a broadcast protocol into a gnd-tree protocol.

17. About the proof: About the proof: The reduction:  A series of transformations from a broadcast protocol into a gnd-tree protocol. Gnd-tree lower bound:  Defining a knowledge measure.  Bounding knowledge measure by depth of tree.

18. Lower bound for gnd-trees  Our claim: A gnd-tree which computes identity on x=x 1,..,x n requires  (   n ¢ log n) depth.  We actually prove: If depth(T) ·   n ¢ log n then Pr x » U [T returns x] <  (  ), (lim  ! 0  (  )=0)

19. The big picture  We prove: If depth(T) ·   n ¢ log n then Pr x » U [T returns x] <  (  ), ( lim  ! 0  (  )=0 )  Structure of such proofs: 1.Define: Knowledge measure M x (v) 2.Show: T correct only if w.h.p. M x (  ) > t 3.Show: If depth(T)<<nlog n, then w.h.p. M x (  )<t In our case: t = log(n), and typically M x (v,a) - M x (v) · 1/(  3 ¢ n)  is the leaf reached by T. g(x)=y g(x)=.. f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 2 ) Disclaimer: We consider case where each noisy copy is queried once… (more work needed in general case) Disclaimer: We consider case where each noisy copy is queried once… (more work needed in general case)

20. Perceived probability  Perceived probability (“likelihood”) of x: L x (v)=Pr[x|visit(v)]  Pr[x|visit(v)] is “multiplicative”. g(x)=y g(x)=.. f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 2 )

21. Knowledge measure: 1 st attempt  Log likelihood of x: LL x (v) = n + log(L x (v)) LL x (root) =0, LL x ()n – const LL x (  ) ¸ n – const  We’d like to show: Typically, LL x (v,a)-LL x (v) < 1/log(n).  But : After n coordinate queries, LL x ¼  (n).  Reason: x is quickly separated from far away points. Separating x from neighbors is the hardest. g(x)=y g(x)=.. f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 2 )

22. Knowledge measure: seriously  Log likelihood “gradient” at x: M i x (v)= log(L x (v)) - log(L x © i (v)) M x (v)= AVG i (M i x (v)) = log(L x (v)) - AVG i ( log(L x © i (v)) ) = log(L x (v)) - AVG i ( log(L x © i (v)) ) M x (root)=0, M x () ¸ log(n) - c M x (root)=0, M x (  ) ¸ log(n) - c g(x)=y g(x)=.. f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 1 ) f  (x 2 ) f  (x 2 ) All that is left: typical gain in M x is at most 1/n.

23. a =1. v f (x 5 ) v,1 v,0 v,1 Gain in knowledge measure

24. M i x (v,a)- M i x (v)= v f (x 5 ) v,0 v,1 a =1. log(L x (v,a)) - log(L x © i (v,a)) - ( log(L x (v)) - log(L x © i (v)) ) log(L x (v,a)) - log(L x © i (v,a)) - ( log(L x (v)) - log(L x © i (v)) )

25. Gain in knowledge measure M i x (v,a)- M i x (v) M x (v,a)-M x (v)=  The coup des grâce: For every query f v, x, E[M x (v,a)-M x (v)] · 1/(  3 n) E[(M x (v,a)-M x (v)) 2 ] · 1/(  3 n)  Proof: Adaptation of [Talagrand ‘96]. v f (x 5 ) v,0 v,1 Expression depends only on f, x !

26. Main open problem  Show lower bound for computing a Boolean function.  Not known even for a random function!  Generalize for other network designs.

27. Thank You !

28. Gallager’s solution, simplified 1.Partition to groups of size log(n) 2.Each player sends its bit loglog(n) times. 00 1 11 1,1,11 00 1 11 1 0,0,0

29. 1 Gallager’s solution, simplified 1.Partition to groups of size log(n) 2.Each player sends its bit loglog(n) times. 00 10 11 0,0,010 00 11111111 11 10 1 1 1

30. 1101 10 10 11111111 10 Gallager’s solution, simplified 1.Partition to groups of size log(n) 2.Each player sends its bit loglog(n) times.  W.h.p., in all groups, almost all players know all bits. 00 1001 11 1001 00 11 1001

31. Gallager’s solution, simplified 3.Each group transmits error correcting code of its bits: * Each player transmits a constant number of bits. 4.W.h.p. all players now know all bits of all groups. 00 1001 11 1001 00 1101 11 10011,1,1 0,1,10,1,0 1,0,0 suppose code(1001)=100 111 100 011

32. The reduction  The program: Start with a noisy broadcast protocol with kn steps. Gradually, simlulate protocol in more “tree-like” models.  W.l.o.g., assume each node performs 10k transmissions.  first step: each transmission is replaced by three, only one of which is noisy.

33. The reduction  First step: each transmission is replaced by three, only one of which is noisy. Function of x 3, and of past receptions. b x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3 x 3, b(0),b(1) x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3 b(0), b(1) transmitted noise free.

34. The reduction  Second step: noisy transmissions moved to beginning of protocol. Function of x 3, and of past receptions. b x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3 b(0),b(1) x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3 x 3, x 3, x 3,.. x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3

35. The reduction  Second step: noisy transmissions moved to beginning of protocol.  After noisy phase: each player has 10k noisy copies of each bit.  Equivalent to having an  k -noisy copy of x. b(0),b(1) x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3 x 3, x 3, x 3,.. x3x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3

36. The reduction  Third step: each player begins with an  k -noisy copy of x.  Each transmission depends on transmitter’s noisy copy, and past transmissions (and perhaps a random decision). b(0),b(1) x 3, x 3, x 3,.. x©N3x©N3 x©N3x©N3 Equivalent to a gnd tree!

37. Gain in progress measure M i x (v)= log(Pr[x|visit(v)])-log(Pr[x © i|visit(v)]) v f (x 5 ) v,0 v,1

38. Gain in progress measure M i x (v) M i x (v) M i x (v,a)- M i x (v)= v f (x 5 ) v,0 v,1 a = f (x 5 ) : a random variable Only depends on f !.