1. Global Cost and Availability of Capital
Chapter 11
Global Cost and Availability of Capital

2. Global Cost and Availability of Capital
Global integration of capital markets has given many firms access to new and cheaper sources of funds beyond those available in their home markets.
If a firm is located in a country with illiquid and/or segmented capital markets, it can achieve this lower global cost and greater availability of capital by a properly designed and implemented strategy.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

3. Exhibit 11.1 Dimensions of the Cost and Availability of Capital Strategy
Local Market Access
Global Market Access
Firm-Specific Characteristics
Firm’s securities appeal only
to domestic investors
Firm’s securities appeal to
international portfolio investors
Market Liquidity for Firm’s Securities
Illiquid domestic securities market
and limited international liquidity
Highly liquid domestic market and
broad international participation
Effect of Market Segmentation on Firm’s Securities and Cost of Capital
Segmented domestic securities
market that prices shares
according to domestic standards
Access to global securities market
that prices shares according to
international standards

4. Global Cost and Availability of Capital
A firm that must source its long-term debt and equity in a highly illiquid domestic securities market will probably have a relatively high cost of capital and will face limited availability of such capital which will, in turn, damage the overall competitiveness of the firm.
Firms resident in industrial countries with small capital markets may enjoy an improved availability of funds at a lower cost, but would also benefit from access to highly liquid global markets.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

5. Global Cost and Availability of Capital
Firms resident in countries with segmented capital markets must devise a strategy to escape dependence on that market for their long-term debt and equity needs.
A national capital market is segmented if the required rate of return on securities in that market differs from the required rate of return on securities of comparable expected return and risk traded on other securities markets.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

6. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
A firm normally finds its weighted average cost of capital (WACC) by combining the cost of equity with the cost of debt in proportion to the relative weight of each in the firm’s optimal long-term financial structure:
kWACC = keE + kd(1-t)D V V
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

7. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
kWACC = weighted average after-tax cost of capital
ke = risk-adjusted cost of equity
kd = before-tax cost of debt
t = marginal tax rate
E = market value of the firm’s equity
D = market value of the firm’s debt
V = total market value of the firm’s securities (D+E)
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

8. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) approach is to define the cost of equity for a firm by the following formula:
ke = krf + βj(km – krf)
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

9. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
ke = expected (required) rate of return on equity
krf = rate of interest on risk-free bonds (Treasury bonds, for example)
βj = coefficient of systematic risk for the firm
km = expected (required) rate of return on the market portfolio of stocks
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

10. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
The normal procedure for measuring the cost of debt requires a forecast of interest rates for the next few years, the proportions of various classes of debt the firm expects to use, and the corporate income tax rate.
The interest costs of different debt components are then averaged (according to their proportion).
The before-tax average, kd, is then adjusted for corporate income taxes by multiplying it by the expression (1-tax rate), to obtain kd(1-t), the weighted average after-tax cost of debt.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

11. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
The weighted average cost of capital is normally used as the risk-adjusted discount rate whenever a firm’s new projects are in the same general risk class as its existing projects.
On the other hand, a project-specific required rate of return should be used as the discount rate if a new project differs from existing projects in business or financial risk.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

12. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
In practice, calculating a firm’s equity risk premium is quite controversial.
While the CAPM is widely accepted as the preferred method of calculating the cost of equity for a firm, there is rising debate over what numerical values should be used in its application (especially the equity risk premium).
This risk premium is the average annual return of the market expected by investors over and above riskless debt, the term (km – krf).
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

13. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
While the field of finance does agree that a cost of equity calculation should be forward-looking, practitioners typically use historical evidence as a basis for their forward-looking projections.
The current debate begins with a debate over what actually happened in the past.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

14. The Demand for Foreign Securities: The Role of International Portfolio Investors
Gradual deregulation of equity markets during the past three decades not only elicited increased competition from domestic players but also opened up markets to foreign competitors.
To understand the motivation of portfolio investors to purchase and hold foreign securities requires an understanding of the principals of:
Portfolio risk reduction
Portfolio rate of return
Foreign currency risk
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

15. The Demand for Foreign Securities: The Role of International Portfolio Investors
Both domestic and international portfolio managers are asset allocators whose objective is to maximize a portfolio’s rate of return for a given level of risk, or to minimize risk for a given rate of return.
Since international portfolio managers can choose from a larger bundle of assets than domestic portfolio managers, internationally diversified portfolios often have a higher expected rate of return, and nearly always have a lower level of portfolio risk since national securities markets are imperfectly correlated with one another.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

16. The Demand for Foreign Securities: The Role of International Portfolio Investors
Market liquidity (observed by noting the degree to which a firm can issue a new security without depressing the existing market price) can affect a firm’s cost of capital.
In the domestic case, a firm’s marginal cost of capital will eventually increase as suppliers of capital become saturated with the firm’s securities.
In the multinational case, a firm is able to tap many capital markets above and beyond what would have been available in a domestic capital market only.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

17. The Demand for Foreign Securities: The Role of International Portfolio Investors
Capital market segmentation is caused mainly by government constraints, institutional practices and investor perceptions.
While there are many imperfections that can affect the efficiency of a national market, these markets can still be relatively efficient in a national context but segmented in an international context (recall the finance definition of efficiency).
Some capital market imperfections include:
Lack of transparency
Political risks
Corporate governance issues
Regulatory barriers
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

18. The Demand for Foreign Securities: The Role of International Portfolio Investors
The degree to which capital markets are illiquid or segmented has an important influence on a firm’s marginal cost of capital (and thus on its weighted average cost of capital).
In the following exhibit, the marginal return on capital at different budget levels is denoted as MRR.
If the firm is limited to raising funds in its domestic market, the line MCCD shows the marginal domestic cost of capital.
If the firm has additional sources of capital outside the domestic (illiquid) capital market the marginal cost of capital shifts right to MCCF.
If the MNE is located in a capital market that is both illiquid and segmented, the line MCCU represents the decreased marginal cost of capital if it gains access to other equity markets.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

19. Exhibit 11.6 Market Liquidity, Segmentation, and the Marginal Cost of Capital
and rate of return (percentage)
MCCF
MCCU
MCCD kD
20% kF
15% kU
13%
MRR
10%
Budget
(millions of $) 10 20 30 40 50 60
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

20. Illustrative Case: Novo Industri A/S (Novo)
Novo is a Danish multinational firm.
The company’s management decided to “internationalize” the firm’s capital structure and sources of funds.
This was based on the observation that the Danish securities market was both illiquid and segmented from other capital markets (at the time).
Management realized that the company’s projected growth opportunities required raising capital beyond what could be raised in the domestic market alone.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

21. Illustrative Case: Novo Industri A/S (Novo)
Six characteristics of the Danish equity market were responsible for market segmentation:
Asymmetric information base of Danish and foreign investors
Taxation
Alternative sets of feasible portfolios
Financial risk
Foreign exchange risk
Political risk
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

22. Illustrative Case: Novo Industri A/S (Novo)
Although Novo’s management wished to escape from the shackles of Denmark’s segmented and illiquid capital market, many barriers had to be overcome.
These barriers included closing the information gap between the capital markets and the company itself and executing a share offering in the US (which required resolving additional barriers imposed by the government of Denmark on securities issuances).
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

23. Exhibit 11.7 Novo’s B-Share Prices Compared with Stock Market Indices
Dow Jones Industrial Average (NYSE)
Novo B-Shares
Financial Times (London)
Danish Industry
Index
Source: Arthur I. Stonehill and Kåre B. Dullum, Internationalizing the Cost of Capital: The Novo Experience
and National Policy Implications, London: John Wiley, 1982, p. 73. Reprinted with permission.

24. The Cost of Capital for MNEs Compared to Domestic Firms
Determining whether a MNEs cost of capital is higher or lower than a domestic counterpart is a function of the marginal cost of capital, the relative after-tax cost of debt, the optimal debt ratio and the relative cost of equity.
While the MNE is supposed to have a lower marginal cost of capital (MCC) than a domestic firm, empirical studies show the opposite (as a result of the additional risks and complexities associated with foreign operations).
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

25. The Cost of Capital for MNEs Compared to Domestic Firms
This relationship lies in the link between the cost of capital, its availability, and the opportunity set of projects.
As the opportunity set of projects increases, the firm will eventually need to increase its capital budget to the point where its marginal cost of capital is increasing.
The optimal capital budget would still be at the point where the rising marginal cost of capital equals the declining rate of return on the opportunity set of projects.
This would be at a higher weighted average cost of capital than would have occurred for a lower level of the optimal capital budget.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

26. Exhibit 11.8 The Cost of Capital for MNE & Domestic Counterpart Compared
Marginal cost of capital
and rate of return (percentage)
MCCDC
20%
15%
MCCMNE
10%
MRRMNE 5%
MRRDC
Budget
(millions of $)
100
140
300
350
400
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

27. The Cost of Capital for MNEs Compared to Domestic Firms
In conclusion, if both MNEs and domestic firms do actually limit their capital budgets to what can be financed without increasing their MCC, then the empirical findings that MNEs have higher WACC stands.
If the domestic firm has such good growth opportunities that it chooses to undertake growth despite and increasing marginal cost of capital, then the MNE would have a lower WACC.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.

28. Is MNEwacc > or < Domesticwacc ?
Exhibit Do MNEs Have a Higher or Lower WACC Than Their Domestic Counterparts?
Is MNEwacc > or < Domesticwacc ? [
kWACC = ke
Equity
Value
+ kd ( 1 – t )
Debt ]
Empirical studies indicate MNEs have a lower debt/capital ratio than domestic counterparts indicating MNEs have a higher cost of capital.
And indications are that MNEs have a lower average cost of debt than domestic counterparts, indicating MNEs have a lower cost of capital.
The cost of equity required by investors is higher for multinational firms than for domestic firms. Possible explanations are higher levels of political risk, foreign exchange risk, and higher agency costs of doing business in a multinational managerial environment. However, at relatively high levels of the optimal capital budget, the MNE would have a lower cost of capital.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.