Dissertation/Thesis Writing

Dissertation/Thesis Writing
Acculturation into the writing process Learning to write and developing strategies to write better research articles in order to increase your chances of publication. Not an innate skills. Dr Íde O’Sullivan, Lawrence Cleary Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre
Workshop outline The writing process Planning and outlining Writing strategies Getting going Keeping going Getting unstuck Finishing on time Peer review Regional Writing Centre

Where am I? What writing have you done for the dissertation/thesis, and what writing do you need to do in order to complete the dissertation/thesis on time? Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes. Write in sentences. Do not edit or censor your writing. Private writing — no one will read it. Discuss what you have written in pairs. Regional Writing Centre

Reflection and discussion
What impact did the previous exercise have on you? How might this type of writing activity be useful? Discussion What do you worry about or struggle with when faced with a writing task? Murray (2005) – Freewriting - generative writing To get started To explore possibilities To silence the ‘internal editor’ temporarily To develop confidence To develop fluency To work out a complex argument To do rough drafting Regional Writing Centre

Good writers engage in a writing process that works
Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing and Proofreading Assessing the context into which you write Assessing your own writing strategies, what works, and what is not working Looking at what other writers do Dividing the process up into discrete linear steps is one way of categorising strategy development. Certain writing strategies correspond to different stages of development of the written piece. If, while drafting your report, you discover that you need to provide more support for a particular claim that you have made, then you need to employ strategies that correspond to strategies employed in the prewriting stage: gathering information and taking notes. This demonstrates the iterative, or recursive, nature of the writing process. One task performed in the prewriting stage is the assessing of the context into which you write, the rhetorical situation (all writing is rhetorical in that someone needs to be persuaded of something, even if it is of the writer’s credibility). As you begin your writing task, you should be conscious of why you are doing what you are doing in the order that you are doing it. You should monitor how well those things that you are doing are working—how well have these strategies worked in the past? Will those strategies work in this context? Regional Writing Centre

The writing process Pre-writing Drafting Revising Editing and Proofreading Talking about writing Getting feedback on writing It’s easier for us to talk about writing if we can frame our process with categories like these. It gives us a way of locating what we do. Recognising that we revisit stages occasionally speaks to the reiterative nature of the process. Exercise: What goes on in each stage? Thinking about an approach, gathering information, considering a plan of action, actually beginning to write, assessment—completely reconsidering the plan or the organisation of the whole, and clarifying paragraph organisation, the meaning in a sentence, word choices, punctuation, spelling, formatting issues, etc. Regional Writing Centre

Prewriting Planning Evaluating the rhetorical situation, or context, into which you write Choosing and focusing your topic Establishing an organising principle Gathering information Entering the discourse on your topic Taking notes as a strategy to avoid charges of plagiarism Evaluating sources Though you may be well into your writing process by now, it pays to review all of the stages of the process, even now, as writing is this recursive activity. Where are you in your writing process? If you were experiencing difficulties with organisation or structure or with how to determine the organisation of the paper, some of the problem may be due to inattention to necessities in these early stages. Because writing is a recursive activity, a back and forth process, I thought it would be beneficial if I presented the process in its totality and allow you to assess how well you laid the foundations of your project in those early stages. The Rhetorical Situation: Triangulation of a consideration of your audience, yourself as a writer or communicator, and your purpose. What do you know about your audience? What do they expect to see in your document in terms of content, format, organisation and style? What prejudices or preconceptions do they hold (truth values, methodologies,…; in relation to the topic you have chosen and the inquiry you are pursuing)? Will the topic you have chosen be valued by your audience? On what basis will they evaluate the credibility of your conclusions? What do they need to know in order that your project is valued and your conclusions achieve credibility in their eyes? How do you want to appear to your audience? How will you demonstrate that you are an authority on your subject? How will you show that you are trustworthy? What impression do you want to make on your audience? What are you trying to achieve with your writing? Are you trying to inform? Persuade? Or express your feelings? What is your purpose for writing? Have you received any feedback on your present writing project? Has your topic been approved? Has your line of inquiry been approved? Has your methodology been approved? Are you reading topical material that is pertinent to the line of inquiry and valued in the discourse community? Are you documenting your sources as you read? 7 Regional Writing Centre 7

Planning: Assessing the Rhetorical Situation
The Occasion The Audience The Topic The Purpose The Writer An assessment of the rhetorical situation is usually done early in the writing process, but again, writing is recursive. Changes made in revision necessitate a reevaluation of the situation. Too, you may have learned of something late in the process that you had not originally realised earlier on. This new “something” has to be considered in terms of this situational context. All major revisions should be checked to see that each word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, section or chapter, each resource or methodology employed in pursuit of your goal and your paper’s goal, is suitable to the rhetorical situation or context into which you are writing. Regional Writing Centre

Drafting Try to visualise your dissertation or thesis. Work toward that vision. Begin to structure it—establish your section headings; give them titles. These do not have to be permanent. Examine the logical order of ideas reflected in those titles. Do not get hung up on details; elements of the draft are subject to change in the revision stage. Start to write the sections that you are ready to write. Don’t try to write the Introduction merely because it comes first. Start with the sections that you are ready to write about. Usually, introductions and abstracts are the last things written. Write your reference pages as you research and as you draft. Write the parts that can be finished quickly or do not need a lot of revision: The cover sheet can be finished immediately. You may revise the title, but for all intents and purposes, its done. Get started right away on your reference page. Save preliminary sections as separate documents so that they aren’t subject to movement as when making changes in the body of your report. Also, saving the preliminary section, the body and the end matter as separate documents allows you to vary your pagination—roman numerals for preliminaries, Arabic for body, letter / Arabic combinations for appendices. (Having said this, the guidelines ask for an individual electronic document—one way around this is to send several documents as a zip-file. This will keep them together. Ask if this is okay.) Begin writing by formatting your pages. Using styles for headings helps later when it comes time to set up your table of content. Set up your margins, establish your font and paragraph style (block or indented style). Just get on the keyboard. Regional Writing Centre

Structure Chapter 1- Introduction Chapter 2 - Background and literature review Chapter 3 – Research design and methodology Chapter 4 - Data analysis / results and discussion Chapter 5 – Conclusions and recommendations How should your dissertation look? Do you have a vision? What should the dissertation look like? Regional Writing Centre

Outlining (Murray, 2006) Title and summary Level 1 outlining Main headings Level 2 outlining Sub-headings Level 3 outlining Sub-sub headings Define your writing tasks Ordering your ideas Aligning your outline with your summary Set goals for writing Checks coherence of your argument Imposes appropriate word limits Decide on content Write your outline in sentences: The aim of this section is………” Set word limit for sections and sub-sections “Defining writing tasks first may make it easier to find time slots for them” (Murray). Regional Writing Centre

Writing goals Outline Words/Timeframe Title Chapter 1 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) Chapter 2 (title) Chapter 3 … … … Regional Writing Centre

Drafting Continue to reassess your rhetorical situation. Does what you have written so far contribute to the achievement of your purpose? Experiment with organisation and methods of development. Don’t get bogged-down in details; focus on the big issues: organisation and logical flow. As you develop your method of organisation, reassess your section and sub-section titles. Good titles inform the reader of what to expect. They also help you maintain a sense of logical order: Does it make sense to talk about X before talking about Y? Mmmn. Maybe I should rearrange the sections so that they flow more logically toward my conclusions and recommendations. Try to establish a point of order. Usually, this is your thesis statement, a question, or a hypothesis that you are struggling to confirm. Write out the organising principle as a simple single sentence: “The aim of the dissertation is to establish if the use of mobile computing is more cost effective than the traditional form of data collection and processing” (O’Donnell 2007, p. vii). Regional Writing Centre

Revising Is your report logically organised? A good way to check the logical flow of your ideas is to outline your report AFTER you’ve completed your draft. What organises your text? Questions/Hypothesis/Claims Does each section contribute to your reader’s understanding of your topic? Does your report service your purpose, aims, and objectives? The organising principle: From beginning to end, the point of order is the initial question, claim or hypothesis. Chapter and section headings announce the organisation with a logical, linear, progressive arrangement of ideas. Regional Writing Centre

Revising Outline each section. How does each paragraph contribute to our understanding of the topic of that section? Take a close look at paragraphs: Does each paragraph have a central idea? Does it have unity? Is it coherent and well developed? Is there a correspondence between the title of your report, your section headings and sub-headings and the central ideas in your paragraphs? Hyperlink: Paragraph 1: What is the paragraph about? What is its topic? The aspect of the topic? What is the central idea in the paragraph? Is there any disunity in the paragraph? How about phrases like: ‘another major benefit’? How many benefits are discussed in this paragraph? What are they? If you were to guess at the heading for the section containing this paragraph, what do you think it would be? Benefits of and problems with handin What is this paragraph’s topic? What is this paragraph’s controlling idea? Are there any sentences or ideas that do not belong? Is the paragraph coherent? Is it well developed? Regional Writing Centre

Flow Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) Clarity of expression Paragraph structure Unity Coherence Clarity of expression Avoid repetition of words Avoid repetition of ideas Delete redundant words Be direct: avoid using too many words Avoid ambiguity Avoid unclear pronoun reference Choose strong active verbs Use parallel constructions Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure Chapters or sections are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. Like chapter and section headings, paragraphs also signal the logically organised progression of ideas. Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence. A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed. It contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph. Very lengthy paragraphs can indicate a lack of structure. Short paragraphs can indicate a lack of detail or evidence to support the argument. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Unity
Paragraphs should be unified. ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 18). Basically, ‘unity’ demands that digressions are kept to a minimum. Every sentence in a paragraph develops one topic or idea, and each paragraph in an argumentative essay, likewise, develops the line of argument that supports the thesis statement. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Coherence
Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent you have repeated or substituted key nouns (Oshima and Hogue, 2006: 22) The biggest offence is usually pronoun references that haven’t any recognisable antecedent. What the hell is that? Good practices that aid in text coherence are: repetition of key nouns. Nouns are referential. Repetition can be boring, but that’s where a good thesaurus comes in. Use of consistent pronouns. Students should be aware that person or number shifts are confusing. They shouldn’t be changing ‘from you to he or she (change of person), or from he to they (change of number)’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 42). Lastly, good use of transition signals (next slide) makes for an easier read. Regional Writing Centre

Revising Do the methods used to illuminate your topic lead to logical discovery? No truths are self-evident. Claims have to be defended with evidence. Processes have to be described and explained; Design features and research methods have to be justified; The justification for generalisations and conclusions need to be made explicit; The criteria used to qualify our results also needs to be explicitly put forward and evaluated for objectivity; Underlying assumptions need to be evaluated for their objectivity. Methods of development include: comparative / contrast, analysis, evaluation, synthesis, explanation, cause and effect, classification and categorisation, definition and description (spatial / temporal), etc. Data: When we use data as the foundation for a claim, does the data in fact support the claim? Claims: Do we in fact establish the merit of our claims? Warrants: Do the assumptions on which our claims rely give us license to proceed with our argument? Backing: Do we support our claims with credible evidence and examples? Rebuts: Do we identify those who would oppose our claims and unveil the weakness of their claims? Qualification: Do we qualify our claims, revealing limitations or degrees of certainty? Regional Writing Centre

Editing and proofreading
This is the careful editing of each line and each graphic to ensure that the material is expressed in simple, clear correct English. Once the report is cogent, it must be made to be coherent. Work methodically, checking one feature at a time. Do not exclude formatting issues. Editing and proofreading is more than just grammar and punctuation; it is also about voice, rhythm, tone, style and clarity. Begin, for instance, with global issues: Unity, Order and Logical flow of ideas. Check for unnecessary or irrelevant ideas or information. Look for illogicalities in the arrangement of ideas. On the local level: Check paragraphs for internal logic and unity. Check sentence rhythm, grammar, syntax, register and mechanics. Regional Writing Centre

Tips for editing Set it aside for a few days and come back with a fresh eye Get someone else to proofread it as well as you Use the print preview button to check layout Always proofread on hardcopy Hold paper below the line you are proofreading Use the find button to make changes Be consistent!! Editing a reference list is separate Common errors Consistency of layout Spelling, punctuation and grammar Syntax Correct font and spacing Word or letter substitution Transposition of letters Omission of a line or lines, which does not outwardly affect the meaning Check finished work with original Dates, proper names and place names, and figures Complete labelling of diagrams, tables, graphs, etc Regional Writing Centre

Editing a reference list
Check that in-text dates and page numbers match reference list. Only enter names in reference list that you have mentioned in your text – it’s not a bibliography. Make sure that if a name is mentioned in the document that is in included in the reference list. Do a separate edit of your reference list, checking everything matches, everything is included and it is consistent. Regional Writing Centre

Revision: Checklist Macro Issues content and organisation logical sequence of ideas audience adaptation purpose Micro Issues grammar style format Only edit one thing at a time Listen to your voice Regional Writing Centre

Revision: Checklist Revising the structure Introduction A clear logical structure Your arguments / evidence Conclusion Revising the research methodology/design and methods Revising the content Accuracy Style Use of words Step back - become the editor See revision as a distinct stage in the writing process Don’t attempt to revise everything at once – revise a number of times checking something different each time Structure: Read through quickly - reassurance What is good What needs to be improved on? What is clearer now that you have finished writing the draft? Regional Writing Centre

Revising the structure
Introduction Have you stared what you are doing and why? Have you outlined the structure? Have you mapped the plan? Swales’ (1990) CARS model Create a Research Space Check your topic sentences in each paragraph Check your transition signals Regional Writing Centre

CARS model Establishing a territory Claiming centrality Reviewing items of previous research Establishing a niche Counter-claiming Identifying a gap Question-raising Occupying the niche Outlining purpose Swales’ (1990:141) Regional Writing Centre

A clear logical structure Did you lead the reader clearly through the dissertation? Did you follow the map outlined in the introduction? Did you give directions to the reader? (Check coherence, topic sentences and transition signals.) Have you delivered on all your promises? Regional Writing Centre

Your arguments / evidence Is each argument developed sufficiently? Do you give enough evidence to support your argument? Do you use the appropriate language to reflect the evidence? Is the content of each paragraph relevant? Does irrelevant information get in the way? Conclusion “Show not tell” (Greetham, 2001:265) Regional Writing Centre

Revising the research methodology
Is the methodology appropriate? Are the following clear and appropriate? Sampling strategy Data collection Data analysis Are the findings presented clearly? Are the findings supported by sufficient data? How important are the findings? Regional Writing Centre

Revising the content Accuracy Facts: Is the content accurate? Quotations: Is it clear which ideas are mine / those of others? Are all sources and references acknowledged? Is everything in the bibliography? Regional Writing Centre

Revising the content Style / use of words Are there words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs that are unnecessary? Will the reader get lost in long sentences? Are there any obscure / ambiguous words? Is the appropriate voice used? Are there unnecessary modifiers? Final read Does it flow smoothly / read well? Is it interesting? Is the pace / rhythm appropriate? Does it look neat and professional? Style: simplicity and economy of words Logical Interesting Brevity State things as clearly as you can Do not overcomplicate / undercomplicate things Clear/strong verbs: thinking suspiciously vs suspecting Pin down your ideas with the right words Words are the vehicle for your ideas Regional Writing Centre

New writers’ errors (Murray, 2005:4)
“Writing too much about ‘the problem’.” “Overstating the problem and claiming too much for their solution.” “Overstating the critique of others’ work.” “Not saying what they mean, losing focus through indirect writing.” “Putting too many ideas in one paper.” What do the reviewers say? Dealing with the reviewers’ comments? Respond to the editor. Your intention / deadlines / what you will deal with / anything beyond the scope. Regional Writing Centre

Sample comments The main criticism of the thesis is that the research was not focused enough in the topic under discussion. There was a sense of ‘stop & start’ throughout the thesis, particularly in the earlier chapters making it a challenge to follow the argument. A bit unwieldy, lacking clarity and focus. A research topic needs to be more than ‘interesting’. Descriptive analysis only and little basis to support conclusions. The qualitative approach was very subjective - this needed additional explanation. Regional Writing Centre

Writing strategies Where and when do you write? Why are you not writing? Write about why you are having difficulty making advances in your paper “I don’t feel ready to write.” Writers’ block … … … Weekly timetable – Map your time – Be realistic! – Develop a regular pattern! Dealing with issues of time “Binge” and “snack” writing (Murray, 2005) Do I need a big block of time to write productively? “Short bursts of productive writing” (Murray and Moore, 2006:17) Regional Writing Centre

Writing strategies Why write about why you are having difficulty? It gets the fingers tapping and the cerebral juices flowing. An awareness of fears and anxieties helps you to develop strategies to overcome those emotional roadblocks. You may discover that the reason that you are having difficulty is that there is some chink in the logic of your argument that you must either fill or that requires a major rethinking of the line of reasoning. If the research is not yielding the data you need to support the claim that you want to make, then you have to consider either the validity of your claim or else the wisdom of your line of inquiry. Perhaps, for instance, a survey was not a bad research methodology to use for gathering the kind of data you needed, but the questions were poorly designed. Solution: A redesign and a renewed effort. Regional Writing Centre

Writing strategies Getting unstuck Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) Set writing goals Write regularly Integrate writing into your thinking Break it down into a manageable process Be patient Be creative Taking pleasure in writing Be proud of your writing Get stuck in Regional Writing Centre

Writing strategies Don’t allow yourself to freeze up. When you are feeling overwhelmed… Satisfy yourself with small advances until you feel more confident and unstuck. Seek help. Talk to friends. Talk about how you feel, but talk about your ideas as well. Eat lots of ice cream and candy. Regional Writing Centre

Writing a ‘page 98 paper’ Early: to establish direction/focus Associate your project with the literature Distinguish your project from the literature Build on research question/hypothesis Focus reading/thinking Manageable writing task: 325 words To develop thinking about your thesis thesis? Late: to focus thinking as you draft conclusion and revise your introduction (Murray, 2006: 105) Regional Writing Centre

Writing a ‘page 98 paper’ My research question is … (50 words) Researchers who have looked at this subject are … (50 words) They argue that … (25 words) Debate centres on the issue of … (25 words) There is work to be done on … (25 words) My research is closest to that of X in that … (50 words) My contribution will be … (50 words) (Murray, 2006: 104) Revisiting your proposal Regional Writing Centre

Peer support Dialogue about writing Getting feedback on writing Peer-review Generative writing The “writing sandwich” (Murray, 2005:85): writing, talking, writing Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore, 2006:102) Writers’ groups Writers’ retreats Dealing with isolation Dealing with feedback Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work. Regional Writing Centre

Works cited Brown, R. (1994/1995) ‘Write Right First Time’, Literati Club, Articles on Writing and Publishing, Special Issue for Authors and Editors. Elbow, P. (1973) Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press. Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2006) How to Write a Thesis. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. UK: Open University Press. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4th ed. New York: Pearson Education. Swales, J. (1990) Genre Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Regional Writing Centre

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