1. Introduction to ML - Part 2 Kenny Zhu

2. What is next? ML has a rich set of structured values Tuples: (17, true, “stuff”) Records: {name = “george”, age = 35} Lists: 3::4::5::nil or [3,4]@[5] Datatypes Functions And more! We put things together in a more complex program

3. An interpreter Interpreters are usually implemented as a series of transformers: stream of characters abstract syntax lexing/ parsing evaluate abstract value print stream of characters

4. A little language (LL) An arithmetic expression e is a boolean value an if statement (if e1 then e2 else e3) an integer an add operation a test for zero (isZero e)

5. LL abstract syntax in ML datatype term = Bool of bool | If of term * term * term | Num of int | Add of term * term | IsZero of term -- constructors are capitalized -- constructors can take a single argument of a particular type type of a tuple another eg: string * char vertical bar separates alternatives

6. LL abstract syntax in ML Add (Num 2, Num 3) represents the expression “2 + 3” Add Num 23

7. LL abstract syntax in ML If (Bool true, Num 0, Add (Num 2, Num 3)) represents “if true then 0 else 2 + 3” Add Num 2 3 true BoolNum 0 If

8. Function declarations fun isValue t = case t of Num n => true | Bool b => true | _ => false function name function parameter default pattern matches anything

9. What is the type of the parameter t? Of the function? fun isValue t = case t of Num n => true | Bool b => true | _ => false function name function parameter default pattern matches anything

10. What is the type of the parameter t? Of the function? fun isValue (t:term) : bool = case t of Num n => true | Bool b => true | _ => false val isValue : term -> bool ML does type inference => you need not annotate functions yourself (but it can be helpful)

11. A type error fun isValue t = case t of Num _ => 1 | _ => false ex.sml:22.3-24.15 Error: types of rules don't agree [literal] earlier rule(s): term -> int this rule: term -> bool in rule: _ => false

12. A type error Actually, ML may give you several errors in a row: ex.sml:22.3-25.15 Error: types of rules don't agree [literal] earlier rule(s): term -> int this rule: term -> bool in rule: Num t2 => true ex.sml:22.3-25.15 Error: types of rules don't agree [literal] earlier rule(s): term -> int this rule: term -> bool in rule: _ => false

13. A very subtle error fun isValue t = case t of num => true | _ => false The code above type checks. But when we test it, the function always returns “true.” What has gone wrong?

14. A very subtle error fun isValue t = case t of num => true | _ => false The code above type checks. But when we test it, the function always returns “true.” What has gone wrong? -- num is not capitalized (and has no argument) -- ML treats it like a variable pattern (matches anything!)

15. Exceptions exception Error of string fun debug s : unit = raise (Error s)

16. Exceptions exception Error of string fun debug s : unit = raise (Error s) - debug "hello"; uncaught exception Error raised at: ex.sml:15.28-15.35 in SML interpreter:

17. Evaluator fun isValue t =... exception NoRule fun eval t = case t of Bool _ | Num _ => t |...

18. Evaluator... fun eval t = case t of Bool _ | Num _ => t | If(t1,t2,t3) => let val v = eval t1 in case v of Bool b => if b then (eval t2) else (eval t3) | _ => raise NoRule end let statement for remembering temporary results

19. Evaluator exception NoRule fun eval1 t = case t of Bool _ | Num _ =>... |... | Add (t1,t2) => case (eval v1, eval v2) of (Num n1, Num n2) => Num (n1 + n2) | (_,_) => raise NoRule

20. Finishing the Evaluator fun eval1 t = case t of... |... | Add (t1,t2) =>... | IsZero t =>... be sure your case is exhaustive

21. Finishing the Evaluator fun eval1 t = case t of... |... | Add (t1,t2) =>... What if we forgot a case?

22. Finishing the Evaluator ex.sml:25.2-35.12 Warning: match nonexhaustive (Bool _ | Zero) =>... If (t1,t2,t3) =>... Add (t1,t2) =>... fun eval1 t = case t of... |... | Add (t1,t2) =>... What if we forgot a case?

23. Demo Managing the source files for the interpreter

24. More on lists: Map fun map f l = case l of nil => [] l x :: l => (f x) :: (map f l) applies the function f to every element in the list - fun add1 x = x + 1; - map add1 [1,2,3]; > val it = [2,3,4] : int list

25. More on lists: Fold fun fold f init l = case l of nil => init | x :: l => f (x, fold f init l) applies function f (x, y) on the elements of l and the result from previous application recursively - fun sum (x, y) = x + y; - foldr sum 0 [1,2,3,4]; val it = 10 : int