1. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-1 Chapter 2. Instruction Set Principles and Examples Topics –Present a taxonomy of instruction set alternatives –Analyze some instruction set measurements –Discuss instruction set architecture not aim at desktops or servers: DSPs and Media processors –Address the issue of languages and compilers –Overview the MIPS Rung-Bin Lin

2. Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-2 Classification of Instruction Set Architectures The type of internal storage in the CPU is the most basic differentiation. –The major choices are a stack, an accumulator, or a set of registers. Operands may be explicit or implicit. Stack architecture : Early machines Accumulator architecture : Early machines General purpose register (GPR) architecture : machines after 1980.

3. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-3 Types of Machines

4. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-4 Code Sequence for C=A+B Stack AccumulatorRegister-memory Register-register Push A Load ALoad R1, ALoad R1, A Push B Add BAdd R1, BLoad R2, B Add Store CStore CAdd R3, R1, R2 Pop CStore C, R3

5. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-5 Memory Access for GPR Machines –Two ways to access explicit operands First loaded into temporary storage Accessed directly from memory –Memory access for register machine Register-memory architecture: one can access memory as part of any instruction. Register-register or load-store architecture: memory access only by load or store instructions. –Memory access for memory-memory architecture –Reasons for emergence of general-purpose register (GPR) machines Registers are faster than memory Registers are easily used by a compiler and used more effectively. –Example: (A*B)-(C*D)-(E*F) for stack machine? for GPR machine? Registers can be used to hold variables: Reduce memory traffic, improve code density, speed up program.

6. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-6 Types of GPR Machines Two major instruction set characteristics divide GPR architectures: Whether an ALU instruction has two or three operands. How many of the operands may be memory address in ALU instructions? Example (fig. 2.3 possible combinations) Number of memoryMaximum number ofExamples addressesoperands allowed 03 SPARC, MIPS, PA, PowerPC, Alpha 12 Intel 80X86, Motorola 68000 22 VAX 33 VAX

7. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-7 Advantages & Disadvantages of GPR Machines TypeAdvantagesDisadvantages RegisterSimple, fixed inst. length, Poor code density (3,0)similar clocks to execute RegisterEasy to encode, Operands destroyed, (1,2)good code densityCPI varies Memory-MemoryMost compactInst. Length and CPI (2,2) or (3,3)varies greatly

8. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-8 Memory Addressing How is a memory address interpreted? –Byte addressed: Provide access for bytes, half words, words, and double words (64 bits) – Conventions for ordering the bytes within a word: Little Endian: put byte whose address xxxx00 at LSB position. Word addressData 032 10 47654 Big Endian: Put byte whose address xxxx00 at MSB position. Word addressData 00123 44567

9. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-9 Address Alignment Access to objects larger than a byte must be aligned. An access to an object of size S bytes at byte address A is aligned if A mod S =0. –Fig. 2.5 aligned and misaligned access ObjectAligned atMisaligned at addressedbyte offsetsbyte offsets ------------------------------------------------------------ Byte0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7Never Half word0,2,4,61,3,5,7 Word0,41,2,3,5,6,7, Double word01,2,3,4,5,6,7 –A misaligned memory access will take multiple aligned memory references

10. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-10 Addressing Mode How architectures specify the address of an object they will access? –In a GPR, an addressing mode can specify a constant, a register, a location in memory (used to compute effective address). –Immediate or literals are usually considered as memory addressing mode. –Addressing modes that depend on the program counter is called PC-relative addressing. –Addressing modes can significantly reduce instruction counts, but may add to the complexity of building a machine and increase the average CPI.

11. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-11 Addressing Modes for Desktops and Servers RegisterADDR4,R3 ImmediateADDR4,#3 DisplacementADDR4,100(R1) Register IndirectADDR4, (R1) IndexedADDR3,(R1+R2) Direct (Absolute)ADDR1,(1001) Memory IndirectADDR1,@(R3) AutoincrementADDR1,(R2)+ AutodecrementADDR1, -(R2) ScaledADDR1, 100(R2)[R3]

12. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-12 Addressing Mode Usage (VAX)

13. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-13 Displacement Addressing Mode (Alpha, SPEC CPU2000)

14. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-14 Immediate or Literal Addressing Mode

15. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-15 Distribution of Immediate Values (Alpha, SPEC CPU2000)

16. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-16 Addressing Mode for DSPs 95% of DSP addressings are same as the Addressing modes for desktops and servers Circular (modulo) addressing mode –Starting address register and ending address register Bit-reverse addressing mode –Reverse the bit order in an address register 6(1100)  3(0011) Used for Fast Fourier Transform(FFT) Bit-reverse and circular takes only 5% of DSP addressings

17. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-17 Type and Size of Operands How is the type of an operand designated? –Encoding it in the OpCode –Annotated with tags For desktops(servers) and DSPs

18. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-18 Operand Types for Desktops and Servers –Character, half word, word, single-precision floating point, double-precision floating point. –Distribution of data accesses by size

19. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-19 Operands for Media and Signal Processing Vertex for graphic operations –A vertex has four components X-coordinate, Y-coordinate, Z-coordinate, and W-coordinate (to help with color or hidden surface) Pixel for imaging Processing –A pixel typically has 32 bits which is divided into four 8- bit channels. R(red), G(green), B(blue), and A (denote the transparency of the surface or the pixel) Fixed-point operand type (in addition to floating point) Data widths –32 bits, 24 bits and 16 bits are common (fig. 2.13)

20. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-20 Operations in the Instruction Set Desktops and servers –ALU, Data transfer, control, system, floating point, decimal, string, graphics. –SIMD instructions for medial and signal processing (fig. 2.17) –Ten most used 80x86instructions (takes 96% of the total inst.) Load(22%), conditional branch(20%), compare(16%), store(12%), …. (fig. 2.16) DSPs (beside the above operations in desktops) –MAC (multiply and accumulate) –Saturating arithmetic If the result is too large to be represented, it is set to the largest representable number.

21. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-21 Instructions for Control Flow Types and their frequency

22. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-22 Destination Address of a Control Flow Instructions Specified explicitly except procedure return. –The most common way to specify the destination is to use PC-relative addressing. Its advantages: Require fewer bits Form re-loadable code Procedure return and indirect jump require a destination address be specified dynamically. –The target address may be as simple as naming a register. –Permit any addressing mode to be used to supply the target address.

23. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-23 Use of Indirect Jump The register indirect jump can be useful in –case or switch statements –dynamically shared library –virtual functions or methods in objected oriented languages –high-order functions or function pointer in C or C++

24. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-24 Branch distance

25. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-25 How Branch Condition Is Tested? Condition code (CC) –80x86, ARM, Power PC, SPARC, SuperH –Test special bits set by ALU –Condition is set for free –CC is extra state and constrains the ordering of inst. Condition register –Alpha, MIPS –Test arbitrary register with the result of a comparison –Simple –Use up a register Compare and branch –Compare is a part of branch –PA-RISC, VAX –One instruction for doing branch –Too much work

26. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-26 Frequency of Conditional Branches

27. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-27 Procedure Invocation Options Procedure calls and returns involve saving of machine states –Program counter must be saved for returning to the caller –Some other registers automatically saved by hardware (Old architecture) –Registers are saved by executing the code generated by the compiler Caller saving Callee saving

28. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-28 Encoding an Instruction Set How to encode the addressing mode with the operations? –Depend on the number of operands per instruction and the number of addressing modes per operand. If the number of operation and addressing mode combinations is large, a separate address specifier is needed for each operand (ex. VAX machine). If it is small, the addressing mode can be encoded as part of the OpCode (Load-store machine, one memory operand and one or two addressing mode). –The architects must balance several competing forces when encoding the instruction set. The desire to have as many registers and addressing modes as possible. The impact of the size of the register and addressing mode fields on the average instruction size and on the average program size. A desire to have instructions encoded into lengths that will be easy to handle in the implementation (i.e., multiples of bytes).

29. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-29 Choices for Encoding the Instruction Set

30. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-30 An Example of The Variable Encoding ADDEAX,1000(EBX) Indicates a 32-bit integer ADD instruction with two operands. Opcode takes 1 byte Needs a 1-byte address specifier to indicate addressing mode and the register being used. The displacement needs four bytes. Total length: 1+1+4=6 bytes –80x86 instruction length 1 to 17 bytes

31. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-31 Code Size Reduction Use of hybrid format (40% reduction) –ARM series processors 32-bit ARM instruction set 16-bit Thumb instruction set –MIPS (40% reduction in code size) 32-bit MIPS 16-bit MIPS Use of code compression –IBM PowerPC decodes the compressed code when it is first fetched from main memory

32. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-32 The Role of Compilers Crossed coupled with the instruction set architecture It greatly affects the code size and execution speed of a program Goal of a compiler writer –Correctness –Speed of compiled code

33. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-33 The Structure of Recent Compilers

34. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-34 Phase-ordering Problem Compilers make assumptions about the ability of later steps to deal with certain problems. It limits the optimization effectiveness of compilation. Examples –Choose which procedure calls to expand inline before they know the exact size of the procedure. –Global common subexpression elimination assumes the value will be allocated with a temporary register

35. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-35 Optimization of Compilation High-level optimization –Processor independent Local optimization –Within a basic block Global optimization –Across branches Register allocation –Machine dependent –Can be solved by Graph Coloring Other processor-dependent optimization

36. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-36 Impact of Optimization on Performance

37. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-37 How the Architect Can Help Compiler Writer Instruction set properties help compiler writers –Regularity: Operations, data types, and addressing modes should be orthogonal (independent). –Provide primitives, not solutions: Don’t try to match a language construct. –Simplify the trade-offs among alternatives: One of the most difficult instances of complex trade-offs occurs in a register-memory architecture in deciding how many times a variable should be referenced before it is cheaper to load it into a register. –Provide instructions that bind the quantities known at compiled time as constants.

38. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-38 The MIPS Architecture The MIPS architecture emphasizes –A simple load-store instruction set. –Design for pipelining efficiency, including a fixed instruction set encoding. –Efficiency as a compiler target. Registers for MIPS64 –32 64-bit general purpose registers, named R0, R1, …, R31. The value of R0 is always 0. –32 single(double)-precision registers, named F0, F1, …, F31. Data types for DLX –8-bit byte, 16-bit half word, 32-bit word for integer. –32-bit single-precision, 64-bit double-precision for floating point.

39. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-39 Addressing Modes for MIPS64 –Immediate and displacement, both with 16-bit fields. –Register deferred can be obtained by placing 0 in the 16- bit displacement field. Ex. LD R1, 0(R1). –Absolute addressing can be obtained by using register R0 as the base register. Ex. LW R1, xx(R0). –Byte addressable with a 64-bit address. –A mode bit to select Big-Endian or little-Endian mode –A load-store architecture.

40. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-40 MIPS Instruction Format

41. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-41 MIPS Operations –Load and stores (fig. 2.28 on page 133) –ALU operations (fig. 2.29 on page 134) –Branches and jumps (fig. 2.30 on page 135) Jump –target address: 26-bit offset + PC+4 or a register containing the whole 32-bit address. Jump and Link –Target address: same as jump. –Return address: PC+4 Conditional Branch –Target address: 16-bit offset + PC+4 Branch condition is specified in the instruction, which may test the register source of zero or non-zero. –Floating-point operations Add, subtract, multiply and divided. MOV.S and MOV.D copy a single-precision (MOVF) or double- precision floating-point register to another register of the same type.

42. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-42 Usage of MIPS Instructions

43. Rung-Bin Lin Chapter 2:Instruction Set Principles and Examples2-43 Concluding Remarks –Changes of the instruction set architecture in 1990s 32-bit address ----> 64-bit address Optimization of conditional branches via conditional execution Optimization of cache performance via prefetch Support for multimedia Faster floating-point operations –Trends in next decade Long instruction word. Increased conditional execution. Blending of general-purpose and DSP architectures 80x86 emulation