1. Lecture 2: Divide and Conquer I: Merge-Sort and Master Theorem Shang-Hua Teng

2. Algorithm Design Paradigm I Solve smaller problems, and use solutions to the smaller problems to solve larger ones –Incremental (e.g., insertion and selection sort) –Divide and Conquer (Today’s topic) –Dynamic Programming (Feb 11 and Feb 13) Correctness: mathematical induction Running Time Analysis: recurrences Incremental is often a special case of Divide and Conquer

3. Divide and Conquer Divide the problem into a number of sub-problems (similar to the original problem but smaller); Conquer the sub-problems by solving them recursively (if a sub-problem is small enough, just solve it in a straightforward manner. Combine the solutions to the sub-problems into the solution for the original problem

4. Sorting Input: Array A[1...n], of elements in arbitrary order; array size n Output: Array A[1...n] of the same elements, but in the non-decreasing order

5. Merge Sort Divide the n-element sequence to be sorted into two subsequences of n/2 element each Conquer: Sort the two subsequences recursively using merge sort Combine: merge the two sorted subsequences to produce the sorted answer Note: during the recursion, if the subsequence has only one element, then do nothing.

6. Merge-Sort(A,p,r) A procedure sorts the elements in the sub-array A[p..r] using divide and conquer Merge-Sort(A,p,r) –if p >= r, do nothing –if p< r then Merge-Sort(A,p,q) Merge-Sort(A,q+1,r) Merge(A,p,q,r) Starting by calling Merge-Sort(A,1,n)

7. A = MergeArray(L,R) Assume L[1:s] and R[1:t] are two sorted arrays of elements: Merge-Array(L,R) forms a single sorted array A[1:s+t] of all elements in L and R. A = MergeArray(L,R) – –for k 1 to s + t do if –then –else

8. Correctness of MergeArray Loop-invariant –At the start of each iteration of the for loop, the subarray A[1:k-1] contains the k-1 smallest elements of L[1:s+1] and R[1:t+1] in sorted order. Moreover, L[i] and R[j] are the smallest elements of their arrays that have not been copied back to A

9. Inductive Proof of Correctness Initialization: (the invariant is true at beginning) prior to the first iteration of the loop, we have k = 1, so that A[1,k-1] is empty. This empty subarray contains k-1 = 0 smallest elements of L and R and since i = j = 1, L[i] and R[j] are the smallest element of their arrays that have not been copied back to A.

10. Inductive Proof of Correctness Maintenance: (the invariant is true after each iteration) WLOG: assume L[i] <= R[j], the L[i] is the smallest element not yet copied back to A. Hence after copy L[i] to A[k], the subarray A[1..k] contains the k smallest elements. Increasing k and i by 1 reestablishes the loop invariant for the next iteration.

11. Inductive Proof of Correctness Termination: (loop invariant implies correctness) At termination we have k = s+t + 1, by the loop invariant, we have A contains the k-1 (s+t) smallest elements of L and R in sorted order.

12. Complexity of MergeArray At each iteration, we perform 1 comparison, 1 assignment (copy one element to A) and 2 increments (to k and i or j ) So number of operations per iteration is 4. Thus, Merge-Array takes at most 4(s+t) time. Linear in input size.

13. Merge (A,p,q,r) Assume A[p..q] and A[q+1..r] are two sorted Merge(A,p,q,r) forms a single sorted array A[p..r]. Merge (A,p,q,r) –

14. Merge-Sort(A,p,r) A procedure sorts the elements in the sub-array A[p..r] using divide and conquer Merge-Sort(A,p,r) –if p >= r, do nothing –if p< r then Merge-Sort(A,p,q) Merge-Sort(A,q+1,r) Merge(A,p,q,r)

15. Running Time of Merge-Sort Running time as a function of the input size, that is the number of elements in the array A. The Divide-and-Conquer scheme yields a clean recurrences. Assume T(n) be the running time of merge- sort for sorting an array of n elements. For simplicity assume n is a power of 2, that is, there exists k such that n = 2 k.

16. Recurrence of T(n) T(1) = 1 for n > 1, we have if n = 1 if n > 1

17. Solution of Recurrence of T(n) T(n) = 4 nlog n + n Picture Proof by Recursion Tree

18. Asymptotic Notation As input size grow, how fast the running time grow. –T 1 (n) = 100 n –T 2 (n) = n 2 Which algorithms is better? When n < 100 is small then T 1 is smaller As n becomes larger, T 2 grows much faster To solve ambitious, large-scale problem, algorithm1 is preferred.

19. Asymptotic Notation (Removing the constant factor) The  Notation For example  (g(n)) = { f(n): there exist positive c 1 and c 2 and n 0 such that for all n > n 0 } For example T(n) = 4nlog n + n =  (nlog n)

20. Asymptotic Notation (Removing the constant factor) The  Big  Notation For example O(g(n)) = { f(n): there exist positive c and n 0 such that for all n > n 0 } For example T(n) = 4nlog n + n =  (nlog n) But also T(n) = 4nlog n + n =  (n 2 )

21. General Recurrence for Divide-and-Conquer If a divide and conquer scheme divides a problem of size n into a sub-problems of size at most n/b. Suppose the time for Divide is D(n) and time for Combination is C(n), then How do we bound T(n)? if n < c if n > 1

22. The Master Theorem Consider where a >= 1 and b>= 1 we will ignore ceilings and floors (all absorbed in the O or  notation) if n < c if n > 1

23. The Master Theorem If for some constant  > 0 then If then If for some constant  > 0 and if a f(n/b) <= c f(n) for some constant c < 1 and all sufficiently large n, then T(n) =  (f (n))

24. If T(n) = T(2n/3) + 1 then T(n) =  (log n) If T(n) = 9T(n/3) + n, then T(n) =  (n 2 ) If T(n) = 3T(n/4) + n log n then T(n) =  (n log n) If T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n log n then T(n) = ??? (not polynomially large!!!) but we can show that T(n) =  (n log 2 n) Example:The Master Theorem