1. 1 Grammatical metaphor J R Martin Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney

2. 2 1. Grammatical metaphor

3. 3 - grammatical metaphor... - at Manly wharf [Dad, reading sign]‘Seven miles from Sydney and 1000 miles from care’ [Phoebe, age 4]- Where’s Care? - in a Manly bakeshop [Xian]I wonder if I could have one of those... [Server]- Why do you wonder? It’s right there in front of you.

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10. 10 2. Ideational grammatical metaphor

11. 11 - 'concrete' ( ‘ when I was a child I spake as a child ’ ) I was not born with a hunger to be free. I was born free - free in every way that I could know. Free to run in the fields near my mother's hut, free to swim in the clear stream that ran through my village, free to roast mealies under the stars and ride the broad backs of slow-moving bulls. As long as I obeyed my father and abided by the customs of my tribe, I was not troubled by the laws of man or God. [Mandela 1995: 750-751] participant as Thing (noun) I, fields, hut, stream, village, mealies, stars, bulls, father... quality as Epithet (adjective) free, clear, broad process as Process (verb) was born, to run, to swim, to roast, rise, obeyed... logical relation as Textual Theme (conjunction) as long as

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13. 13 I was not born with a hunger to be free. I was born free - free in every way that I could know. Free to run in the fields near my mother's hut, free to swim in the clear stream that ran through my village, free to roast mealies under the stars and ride the broad backs of slow-moving bulls. As long as I obeyed my father and abided by the customs of my tribe, I was not troubled by the laws of man or God. It was only when I began to learn that my boyhood freedom was an illusion, when I discovered as a young man that my freedom had already been taken from me, that I began to hunger for it. At first, as a student, I wanted freedom only for myself, the transitory freedoms of being able to stay out at night, read what I pleased and go where I chose. Later, as a young man in Johannesburg, I yearned for the basic and honourable freedoms of achieving my potential, of earning my keep, of marrying and having a family - the freedom not to be obstructed in a lawful life. ‘freedom’ as quality (adjective) ‘freedom’ as thing (noun)

14. 14 I have walked that long road to freedom. ‘walking’ as a process (verb) But I can only rest for a moment, for with freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not yet ended. ‘walking’ as a thing (noun)

15. 15 Later, as a young man in Johannesburg, I yearned for the basic and honourable freedoms of achieving my potential, of earning my keep, of marrying and having a family. It was this desire for the freedom of my people to live their lives with dignity and self-respect that animated my life, that transformed a frightened young man into a bold one, that drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal, that turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home, that forced a life-loving man to live like a monk. ‘freedom’ as an object of desire... ‘freedom’ as a catalyst of change...

16. 16 It was this desire for the freedom of my people to live their lives with dignity and self-respect... - that animated my life, - that transformed a frightened young man into a bold one, - that drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal, - that turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home, - that forced a life-loving man to live like a monk. cause... effects...

17. 17 I wanted my people to be free and so my life became animated and so a frightened young man became bold and so a law-abiding attorney became a criminal and so a family-loving husband became a man without a home and so a life-loving man lived like a monk - in more ‘spoken’ language... ‘cause’ between clauses

18. 18 This desire for the freedom of my people to live their lives with dignity and self-respect animated my life, transformed a frightened young man into a bold one, drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal, turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home, forced a life-loving man to live like a monk. - in more ‘written’ language... ‘cause’ in the clause (Agent affecting Medium)

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20. 20 3. Ideational grammatical metaphor 3.1 constructing knowledge in social science (Bernstein - sociology)

21. 21 Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy. Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. Thus both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge. - Bernstein changing gears...

22. 22 - writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example) Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit. participants as nouns: lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring, paper qualities as adjectives: stark, bare, pristine, white, square processes as verbs: imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps

23. 23 - writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example) Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit. participants as nouns: lavatory, wall, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring, paper

24. 24 - writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example) Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit. participants as nouns: lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring, paper qualities as adjectives: stark, bare, pristine, white, square

25. 25 - writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example) Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit. participants as nouns: lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring, paper qualities as adjectives: stark, bare, pristine, white, square processes as verbs: imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps

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27. 27 In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf, pictures on the wall, and some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the third lavatory there are books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and perhaps a scattering of tiny objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is totally relaxed. The walls are covered with a motley array of postcards, there is a wide assortment of reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll is likely to be uncovered and the holder may well fall apart in use. nominalising (processes as things): some relaxing of the rigours of the first [not organised as strictly] a scattering of tiny objects [tiny objects are scattered (about)] in use [when used] - towards writing as we write...

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29. 29 We can say that as we move from the first to the fourth lavatory we are moving from a strongly classified to a weakly classified space; from a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by weak rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153] 'cause in the clause' (nominalised processes as Agents): a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion - written explanations...

30. 30 Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit. In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf, pictures on the wall, and some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the third lavatory there are books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and perhaps a scattering of tiny objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is totally relaxed. The walls are covered with a motley array of postcards, there is a wide assortment of reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll is likely to be uncovered and the holder may well fall apart in use. We can say that as we move from the first to the fourth lavatory we are moving from a strongly classified to a weakly classified space; from a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by weak rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153] - drifting from exemplification to theory (Maton’s semantic gravity)...

31. 31 - Bernstein’s explanatory drift...

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33. 33 the pay-off - explanations (Halliday 1998, 2004; Martin & Wodak 2004) Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy. Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. Thus both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge.

34. 34 Now any restriction to circulation and exchange (Agent) reduces effectiveness (Medium) Any restriction (Agent) specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge (Medium) Stratification procedures (Agent) produce distributive rules… (Medium) distributive rules which (Agent) control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire (Medium)...distributive rules which (Agent) set up position of defence and challenge (Medium) - finely tuned causality...

35. 35 3.2 Constructing knowledge in humanities (Billig - critical theory)

36. 36 There are several very different transformations which the concept ‘ nominalization ’ can describe: Linguistic Nominalization... Etymological Nominalization... Psychological Nominalization... Between-Text Nominalization... Within-Text Nominalization... - classifying discourse…

37. 37 - arguing … explaining how the fact that critical writers themselves use language they critique as distorted might be construed as distorting their own discourse: Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or reduces itself to a self-referential paradox. Either way, it is seriously compromised.

38. 38 Causal relations in this explanation, both between clauses (via the linkers because, thus) and within them (Halliday's Agent Medium relations) depend on Billig nominalising what critical writers do (i.e. argue that nominalisation conceals and distorts) as an argument... Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or reduces itself to a self-referential paradox. Either way, it is seriously compromised.

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40. 40 Turning to considerations of information flow, Billig begins by referring to critical writers; but his explanation is not about them, it's about their arguments. So their argument is nominalised and re-iterated thereafter as the Theme (pace Halliday) of every clause (bold face red font below): Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or (the argument) reduces itself to a self-referential paradox. Either way, it is seriously compromised.

41. 41 At the other end of all but one these clauses Billig concentrates on his news, namely, the negative evaluation he is developing of critical writers' argument (bold face below). The bad news involves either negative processes (e.g. distorts) or attributes (e.g. a self-referential paradox): Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or (the argument) reduces itself to a self-referential paradox. Either way, it is seriously compromised.

42. 42 These negative evaluations highlight another important function of nominalisation - that of affording opportunities for evaluation. As foreshadowed in Trew 1979, resources for both positive and negative evaluation in language key heavily on nominals (cf. Trew's rioting blacks, African demonstrators, thirteen unarmed Africans, Zimbabweans). And without nominalisation, there would be no affected participant for long-term critics of CDA to pounce upon: Long-term opponents of critical discourse analysis might pounce gleefully upon the preceding analyses.

43. 43 3.3 Comparison with lexical metaphor

44. 44 compare lexical metaphor... The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit....a word is used in such a way that: - there are two meanings involved ['peeping' and 'just visible'] - they are layered (literal/transferred; figure/ground; surface/deep) ['peeping' literal, 'just visible' transferred] - one implies the other (symbolisation) ['looking quickly and secretly' implying 'just visible'

45. 45 vs grammatical metaphor... (Halliday 1994, Simon-Vandenbergen 2003)...a structure is used in such a way that: a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion - there are two meanings involved Medium (affected)a space Processregulated Agent (cause)by strong rules of exclusion  (Someone) regulated the space x  by strongly excluding things by means of rules - they are layered (literal/transferred; figure/ground; surface/deep...) Medium process Agent literal & enhancing clause complex transferred - one implies the other (symbolisation) 'written' Medium process Agent implying 'spoken' enhancing clause complex

46. 46 3.4. Halliday summary from The Language of Science & Complementarities in Language

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55. 55 3.5 Derivation and grammatical metaphor

56. 56 We can treat nominalisation at the level of grammar (syntax if you will) as a grammatical resource for deriving nouns from other word classes - e.g. nouns from verbs (transform/transformation) transform  transformation or nouns from adjectives (free/freedom) free  freedom

57. 57 As a second step we can ask how this resource may or may not evolve to affect the relationship between discourse semantics and lexicogrammar. For example, if we derive runner from run, we have a nominalisation that refers to a participant which operates as a human entity in semantic figures of various kinds (the runner won, the runner said..., the runner was tired); a runner is someone who runs, not a process. The grammar and semantics match since we have a semantic entity realised by a noun.

58. 58 By the same token, if we derive a verb from a noun, so we can talk about texting someone, we have a verbalisation (to text) realising a semantic process; texting is the process of sending a written message via a mobile phone, not a participant. The semantics and grammar match again because we have a process realised by a verb.

59. 59 [Mike Carlton SMH August 16, 2008] Somehow, the Olympic Games are not doing it for me this time around. All the usual stuff is in place. The opening sarah-moany was the most extravagant spectacle ever. Our silvery-blue team uniforms were a welcome change from green and gold, which - seditious though it may be to say so - simply don't work as colours together. We are racking up the medal tally at a satisfactory rate, oi oi oi. Libby Trickett seems to have grown an extra row of pearly white teeth since her marriage. And the television commentary has been as doggedly banal as you could hope for. It is always a delight to hear those two verbs to medal and to podium get a workout. As in "Jessica medalled in this event in Athens and is hoping to podium again here in Beijing." All very emotional, as they keep assuring us, although they never specify exactly which emotion.

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62. 62 In his studies of the evolution of scientific English, however, Halliday notes that in writing a language may come to deploy derivation in ways that scramble a congruent relationship between semantics and grammar. So when Billig writes that their argument is made through the use of nominalisation, he realises semantic processes of 'arguing', 'using' and 'nominalising' as nouns (instead of verbs), and the logical connection between them through a preposition (instead of a conjunction). In this case the semantics and grammar don't match, but are in tension with one another - a tension we can release by rephrasing Billig in congruent discourse, e.g. they argued by using language which nominalised verbs.

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64. 64 As we can see, nominalisation (and derivation in general) is a resource for extending the lexical resources of a language. Grammatical metaphor on the other hand is a resource for scrambling, within limits, the realisation relationship between semantics and grammar and so indefinitely extending a language's meaning potential. This is much more than a vocabulary building exercise. It allows writers, and people who learn to speak writing, to mean more than one thing at once.

65. 65 Because of the tension between semantics and grammar there are two levels of meaning involved, not one, with one symbolising the other, in a figure to ground relation. For Billig, grammatically speaking, one thing (the argument) is created by means of another one (the use of nominalisation); at the same time, sufficiently literate speakers recognize that he is symbolising an additional layer of meaning comprising the various processes involved in someone deriving nouns and using them to argue with.

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68. 68 4. Historical explanation

69. 69 - explaining...

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71. 71 cause inside the clause cause between clauses

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75. 75 5. Ideational metaphor in science 5.1 explaining

76. 76 Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being less dense, slides up over the cold air and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia. The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7] Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

77. 77 Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being less dense, slides up over the cold air and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia. The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7] Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction. - temporal relations - causal relations

78. 78 - as sequential explanation - as causal explanation - genres may construe comparable knowledge differently!

79. 79 Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being less dense, slides up over the cold air and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia. The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Messel 1963. 7.7]

80. 80 Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, >, slides up over the cold air being less dense and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia.

81. 81 Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, >, slides up over the cold air being less dense and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia.

82. 82 Condensation generally ensues. Then water vapour generally condenses. ‘condensation’ as a noun ‘condensation’ as a verb

83. 83 The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval [[which may be anything up to a day or more]], by a cold front.

84. 84 The approach of a warm front is heralded by... As the front approaches, ‘approaching’ as a noun ‘approaching’ as a verb

85. 85 The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, high, white, wispy clouds appear

86. 86 The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, High, white, wispy clouds appear and so (we know that) a warm front is approaching nouns affecting nouns (inside a clause) processes leading on to processes (between clauses)

87. 87 Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

88. 88 Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions [[in which warmer, less dense, air is rising.]] This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

89. 89 The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction. When the cold front arrives the temperature drops sharply and the wind changes direction suddenly

90. 90 Condensation of water vapour will take place.

91. 91 Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.

92. 92 Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

93. 93 - causality between clauses... if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place.

94. 94 This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. noun verb prepositional adjectival - causality within clauses...

95. 95 Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler because ‘the temperature of an expanding air mass falls because it uses heat energy to expand’

96. 96 Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. So usually cumulous clouds form.

97. 97 Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs because cold front conditions occur.

98. 98 Cold fronts.... Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. Fig. 7.7 shows how a warmer, humid air mass rises and (water vapour) condenses because a cold front (arrives).

99. 99 The arrival of a cold front is marked (cf. is heralded) by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction. - evidence of...

100. 100 Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

101. 101 5. Ideational metaphor in science 5.2 defining

102. 102 The amount of water vapour present in a sample of air is called the humidity. The amount of water vapour actually present in the air, expressed as a percentage of the amount needed to saturate it at its temperature, is called the relative humidity. In a low pressure area - often called a depression or simply a “low”,... - some nominalised technical terms:

103. 103 The amount of water vapour present in a sample of air is called the humidity. The amount of water vapour actually present in the air, expressed as a percentage of the amount needed to saturate it at its temperature, is called the relative humidity. In a low pressure area - often called a depression or simply a “low”,... - definitions relate one ‘thing’ to another:

104. 104 - either or both sides of a definition may involve nominalisation This curving of the waves which is called diffraction this bumping of the electrons into atoms forms a friction or resistance to the passage of electrons through the wire

105. 105 Let us examine what happens when a tuning fork vibrates. As the prong of the fork moves outwards it gives a kick to the air particles next to it. These bunch together and in turn pass the kick to those next to them... As the prong moves backwards it leaves a space where the air particles are spread further apart than they were before and the bunched up particles bounce back into this space... On its next outward movement the prong bunches up more of the particles. This is repeated every time the prongs vibrate. Very quickly a series of bunches, or compressions and spaces, or rarefactions, spreads out from the tuning fork. These make up the sound wave... A sound wave is often referred to as a compression wave... - another nominalised definition...

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107. 107 If we look at how a tuning fork produces sound (b) we can learn just what sound is. (c) By looking closely at one of the prongs (d) you can see that it is moving to and fro (vibrating). (e) As the prong moves outwards (f) it squashes, or compresses, the surrounding air. (g) The particles of air are pushed outwards (h) crowding against and bashing into their neighbours (i) before they bounce back. (j) The neighbouring air particles are then pushed out (k) to hit the next air particles and so on. (l) This region of slightly 'squashed' together air moving out from the prong is called a compression. (m) When the prong of the tuning fork moves back again (n) the rebounding air particles move back into the space that is left. (o) This region where the air goes 'thinner' is called a rarefaction (p) and also moves outwards. (q) The particles of air move to and fro in the same direction in which the wave moves. (r) Thus sound is a compression wave that can be heard. (Heffernan & Learmonth 1982:127)

108. 108 5. Ideational metaphor in science 5.3 classifying

109. 109 Shapes of Magnets (cloze exercise - building field) Magnets are of many shapes, Some are cylindrical rods and some are rectangular bars. They are called bar magnets. Some are U- shaped. Some are called 'horse-shoe magnets' because they look like hore-shoes.

110. 110 Types of magnets (cloze exercise - building field) There are two kinds of magnets: temporary magnets and permanent magnets. Temporary magnets are usually made of iron and are able to keep their magnetism for a short time. Permanent magnets are usually made of steel and are able to keep their magnetism for a long time. Magnets must be treated gently. If a magnet is struck with a hard object, or falls on the ground, then the magnetic particles inside it will become jumbled and it will become weaker. Similarly, heating a magnet will also make it weaker.

111. 111 As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can place most substances into one of two groups. (c) The first group contains materials with many electrons that are free to move. (d) These materials are called conductors (e) because they readily carry or conduct electric currents. (f) Conductors are mostly metals (g) but also include graphite. (h) The second group contains materials with very few electrons that are free to move. (i) These materials are called nonconductors (j) and are very poor conductors of electricity. (k) Nonconductors can be used to prevent charge from going where it is not wanted. (l) Hence they are also called insulators. (m) Some common insulators are glass, rubber, plastic and air. (n) There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. (o) Their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between conductors and insulators. (p) Semiconductors have played an important role in modern electronics. (Heffernan & Learmonth 1983:212)

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113. 113 As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can place most substances into one of two groups. (c) The first group contains materials with many electrons that are free to move. (d) These materials are called conductors (e) because they readily carry or conduct electric currents. (f) Conductors are mostly metals (g) but also include graphite. (h) The second group contains materials with very few electrons that are free to move. (i) These materials are called nonconductors (j) and are very poor conductors of electricity. (k) Nonconductors can be used to prevent charge from going where it is not wanted. (l) Hence they are also called insulators. (m) Some common insulators are glass, rubber, plastic and air. (n) There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. (o) Their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between conductors and insulators. (p) Semiconductors have played an important role in modern electronics. (Heffernan & Learmonth 1983:212)

114. 114 As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, we can place most substances into one of two groups. These materials are called conductors because they readily carry or conduct electric currents. These materials are called nonconductors and are very poor conductors of electricity. There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. Their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between conductors and insulators.

115. 115 substances can carry electricity substances can’t carry electricity a low ability to carry electricity an intermediate ability to carry electricity a high ability to carry electricity ‘ability’ as a verb (can or can’t): ‘ability’ as a noun (various degrees):

116. 116 6. Interpersonal metaphors 6.1 basic mood and modality metaphors

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121. 121 The metaphor interpretation predicts that (i) both mood and speech function can be responded to, typically in that order (figure then ground); (ii)mood can be negotiated literally, at face value; (iii) grammar will symbolise semantics, by factoring out and redistributing the meaning of a speech function; (iv) the number of indirect realisations is not closed, though indefinitely constrained by (iii). Can you please detain them? - Yes, alright. (i) Can you please detain them? - I can but I won’t. (ii) Can/could/will/would you please detain them. (iii) I’m wondering if you could detain them. (iii) I’d like you to detain them please. (iii) If you could just detain them… (iii) etc. (iv)

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123. 123 - degrees of commitment (recommitting experiential meaning in modality metaphor) When laughter can be the best medicine This was followed by Kapokie Tapokie from Pukekohe's phone message: "Hey bro. Heard the one about a lie detector being installed on the Wallabies bus? A centre hooked himself up and said, 'I think we have the best defence in the world'. The detector went off. A front-rower then hooked himself up and said, 'I think I'm the best player in the world'. The detector went off. A second-rower said, 'I think...' and the detector went off. Good one. eh! Eh! You there?" [Monday Maul Greg Crowden SMH 14/5/2007]

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125. 125 direct modalisation indirect modalisation

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127. 127 When laughter can be the best medicine This was followed by Kapokie Tapokie from Pukekohe's phone message: "Hey bro. Heard the one about a lie detector being installed on the Wallabies bus? A centre hooked himself up and said, 'I think we have the best defence in the world'. The detector went off. A front-rower then hooked himself up and said, 'I think I'm the best player in the world'. The detector went off. A second-rower said, 'I think...' and the detector went off. Good one. eh! Eh! You there?" [Monday Maul Greg Crowden SMH 14/5/2007]

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130. 130 6.2 More on modality

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132. 132 - Is he? - orientation/manifestation

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136. 136 objective subjective explicit

137. 137 - value

138. 138 - value median is isn’t

139. 139 - type

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143. 143 explicit subjective = modalisation metaphor

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145. 145 7. Unpacking metaphors

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147. 147 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors If we connect a battery across a body, there is a movement of free electrons towards the positive end. This movement of electrons is an electric current. All materials can be classified into three groups according to how readily they permit an electric current to flow. These are: conductors, insulators and semiconductors. In the first category are substances which provide an easy path for an electric current. All metals are conductors, however some metals do not conduct well. Manganin, for example, is a poor conductor. Copper is a good conductor, therefore it is widely used for cables. A non-metal which conducts well is carbon. Salt water is an example of a liquid conductor. A material which does not easily release electrons is called an insulator. Rubber, nylon, porcelain are all insulators. There are no perfect insulators. All insulators will allow some flow of electrons, however this can usually be ignored because the flow they permit is so small. Semiconductors are midway between conductors and insulators. Under certain conditions they allow a current to flow easily but under others they behave as insulators. Germanium and silicon are semiconductors. Mixtures of certain metallic oxides also act as semiconductors. These are known as thermistors. The resistance of thermistors falls rapidly as their temperature rises. They are therefore used in temperature-sensing devices. (Glendinning 1980:1) - not much nominalisation...

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149. 149 Conductors and insulators All the practical effects of electricity are produced by the movement of electrons. In electrical work generally, materials can be grouped as either conductors or insulators. As a general definition a conductor has the ability to conduct electrons easily, while an insulator tends to prevent the flow of electrons. The production of charges as described in Section 2.1 is more readily demonstrated because the rods used are made of materials that are poor conductors. Most metals are good conductors and, with one or two exceptions, most non-metals are poor conductors (insulators). Whether a material is a good or bad conductor cannot be decided in some arbitrary fashion, because there is no sharp dividing line. All materials have some opposition to the movement of electrons and the degree of opposition governs the use of the material. For example, an electric light receives electricity by means of a good conductor (copper) and to ensure the electrons flow only where desired, the copper wires are encased in a plastic sheathing (a poor conductor or a good insulator). The circumstances governing a material's use also have an effect on the selection. - much more nominalisation...

150. 150 Some salts are insulators when solid but are good conductors when molten. Neon is an insulator when not put under electrical stress, but becomes a conductor when the applied voltage is high enough to ionise the gas. It is important to realise that there are degrees of conductivity. Under normal everyday usage, there is no perfect conductor, nor is there a perfect insulator. In addition to this there are materials in which the degree can be varied. These are called semi-conductors and in the highly refined state are very poor conductors (i.e. good insulators). As their content of impurities is increased, their ability to conduct electrons also increases. Semiconductors are first purified and then "doped" to the required degree of impurity to control the rate of flow of electrons through them. Insulators that are porous and capable of absorbing moisture must be regarded with caution because as they become damp their insulating qualities decrease markedly. These materials (e.g. wood) are often impregnated with varnish to prevent the absorption of moisture. (Jenneson 1980:23.)

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155. 155 8. Construing knowledge - across the curriculum...

156. 156 history: This most successful phase of the Long March owes a great deal to the diplomatic skills of Zhou Enlai and to the bravery of the rearguard. English: Click is about a young girl who has run away from reality and its unhappiness and death that it confronted her with. economics: An increase in consumer demand will result in high prices owing to a shortage in domestic supply.

157. 157 science: Thus sound is a compression wave that can be heard. As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can place most substances into one of two groups. geography: The effects of industrialisation and the need of more land due to the growth of population seriously affected wildlife and still is today already...

158. 158 In terms of a dynamic perspective on language, research suggests that direct realisations tend to precede grammtically metaphorical ones … - in the evolution of a culture (with the emergence of a writing system as a crucial step) - in the development of the individual (with secondary schooling as transitional) - and in unfolding discourse (with more direct textures tending to precede more metaphorical ones) Learning to access disciplinary knowledge in secondary school thus depends on control of this resource for meaning.

159. 159 Christie, F & J R Martin 2007 Knowledge Structure: functional linguistic and sociological perspectives (Ed. F Christie & J R Martin). London: Continuum. Coffin, C 2006 Historical Discourse: the language of time, cause and evaluation. London; Continuum. Halliday, M A K 1998 Things and relations: regrammaticising experience as technical knowledge. in Martin & Veel. 185-235. Halliday, M A K 2004 The Language of Science. London: Continuum (Vol 5 in the Collected Works of M A K Halliday J Webster Ed.). London: Continuum. Halliday, M A K 2008 Complementarities in Language. Beijing: Commercial Press. Halliday, M A K & J R Martin 1993 Writing Science: literacy and discursive power. London: Falmer (Critical Perspectives on Literacy and Education). Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 1999 Construing Experience through Language: a language-based approach to cognition. London: Cassell. Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 2004 An Introduction to Functional Grammar. (3rd Edition) London: Arnold.

160. 160 Martin, J R 1993b Technology, bureaucracy and schooling: discursive resources and control. Cultural Dynamics 6.1. 84-130. Martin, J R & David Rose 2003 Working with Discourse: meaning beyond the clause. London: Continuum. Martin, J R & R Veel [Eds.] 1998 Reading Science: critical and functional perspectives on discourses of science. London: Routledge. Martin, J R & R Wodak [Eds.] 2003 Re/reading the past: critical and functional perspectives on discourses of history (Ed. J R Martin & R Wodak) Amsterdam: Benjamins. Simon-Vandenbergen, A-M, M Taverniers & L J Ravelli [Eds] 2003. Metaphor: systemic and functional perspectives. Amsterdam: Benjamins Wignell, P 2007 On the Discourse of Social Science. Darwin: Charles Darwin University Press. Zhu, Yongsheng 2008 Nominalisation, verbalisation and grammatical metaphor. J Webster [Ed.] Meaning in Context: strategies for implementing intelligent applications of language studies. London: Continuum. 297-308.

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