1. Topic: Evidence for Macroevolution Macroevolution = evolutionary changes over long time spans involving many traits and large genetic changes. The derivation of a new group above the species level (ex., genera or family) In contrast to Microevolution ~ Evolution at the population level up to the level of species that occurs through changes in allele frequencies (and likely genotypes) within a population over time ~ across generations.
large scale change in organisms resulting in new species, genera, families, above the species level
A vague term for the evolution of great phenotypic changes, usually great enough to allocate the changed lineage and its descendants to a distinct genus or higher taxon. Evolution on the grand scale resulting in the origin of higher taxa. In evolutionary theory it thus entails common ancestry, descent with modification, the genealogical relatedness of all life, transformation of species, large scale functional and structural changes, etc. .

2. Topic: Evidence for Macroevolution A. Biogeography
Biogeography = patterns of species distribution.
Taxa on islands more similar to nearest continent.
Example: Galapagos finches
Continental Drift - time of separation between land masses linked to species similarities.

3. Figure Biogeographical areas

4. Figure The history of continental drift

5. B. Taxonomy
Carl Linneaus recognized the organism diversity could be organized into groups depending on the traits expressed.
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family Genus, species
Darwin ‘s interpretation?

6. Figure Classifying life

7. C. Fossil Record Fossils = transformed remains of organisms.
More fossil evidence today.
Radioisotope dating provides age of fossil.
Evidence exists for progressive evolutionary change.
Fossils are not equally present for all groups of organisms.

8. Half-life = length of time required for 50% of the parent material to decay into daughter product.
Uranium 235 to Lead 207 (half-life = 710,000,000 years)
Uranium 238 to Lead 206 (half-life = 4,500,000,000 years)
Thorium 232 to Lead 208 (half-life = 14,000,000,000 years)
Rubidium 87 to Strontium 87 (half-life = 47,000,000,000 years) - most common system used for dating rocks older than 100 million years.
Potassium 40 to Argon 40 (half-life = 1,300,000,000 years) - this method is very often used to date rock less than 60 million years old.

9. Carbon 14 dating:
Carbon 14 to Nitrogen 14 (half-life = 5,570 years)---
There are 3 forms (isotopes) of carbon occuring in nature: Carbon 12 (accounts for 99%)
Carbon 13 (accounts for 1%)
Carbon 14 (accounts for less than 1%).
While alive, plants and animals incorporate these isotopes of carbon into their tissues at the ratio found in the atmosphere.
Upon death, the Carbon 14 in their tissues begins to decay. By measuring the remaining amount of Carbon 14, the age of the fossil can be determined. This method can be used to date material ranging in age from a few hundred years to about 50,000 years. The use of Carbon 14 permits the determination of age directly a fossil. For fossils greater than 50,000 years old, the age of the fossil is found indirectly by determining the age of the rock associated with the fossil. Carbon 14 dating has a dating range of several hundred years before present to 50,000 years before present.

10. Figure The fossil record is one type of historical documentation that chronicles evolution: Archeopterex

11. Figure Fossil of a fish: perch

12. Figure A gallery of fossils

13. Figure Earth’s crustal plates and plate tectonics (geologic processes resulting from plate movements)
Alfred Wegener, a German geophysicist and meteorologist, was not satisfied by this explanation. His ideas drew on the widely recognized fact that Africa and South America appeared to fit together like jigsaw puzzle pieces. He collected data from the continents on both sides of the Atlantic, finding that fossils and rock types along the eastern coast of South America matched those on the western coast of Africa. When he added the northern continents to the puzzle, Wegener realized that the chain of Appalachian Mountains in North America continued as the Caledonian Mountains in northern Europe. 
Today, much of the evidence concerning plate tectonics is acquired with satellite technology. Through use of the global positioning system (GPS) and other satellite-based data collection techniques, scientists can directly measure the movement and speed of plates on the surface of the earth. Speeds range from 10 to 100 mm per year, confirming the long-held belief that plates move at a slow but constant rate.
The Himalayas, as it turns out, started forming about 40 million years ago when the Indian Plate collided head-on with the Eurasian Plate, shoving and folding rocks that had formed below sea level into lofty peaks. Because the Indian Plate is still moving northward, the Himalayas are still rising at a rate of about 1 cm per year. We no longer need to invoke a shrinking, wrinkled earth to explain the marine fossils at the top of the world.
The earth is incredibly dynamic - mountain chains build and erode away, volcanoes erupt and go extinct, seas advance and recede - and these changes are all a result of the processes of plate tectonics. Before Wegener, few had conceived of such a world. His continental drift theory was the first step in the development of plate tectonic theory, the foundation upon which modern geology is built.

14. D. Homologous Structures
Homologous = traits developed from a common ancestor.
Environment-genotype interactions ~ adaptations
Thus homologous traits may function differently.
Example: Mammalian forelimbs

15. Figure Homologous structures: anatomical signs of evolution

16. Figure Transitional fossils linking past and present

17. E. Development
von Baer noted: related species most resemble each other in the juvenile stage.
Hackel noted:
“Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny”
Ontogeny= embryonic development
Phylogeny= evolutionary history
~Successive stages of individual’s development corresponds with successive adult ancestors. Ex.’s

18. Developmental embryology

19. Developmental Embryology
Humans repeat evolutionary history in utero:
-Possess tail ~ fish, it develops into our tail bone
-Possess fine fur from about 5 mo. Gestation
-Gill like stage in early gestation

20. Human tail in utero

21. http://www. palaeos. com/Vertebrates/Bones/Gill_Arches/Images/Meckel4

22. Figure Some properties of life: Development: tad pole – frog metamorphosis

23. Timing of development is important:
Heterochrony = a change in timing of trait development.
Ex., bones of forelimb
Allometric Growth:
same character either grows faster OR for a longer period of time and this changes its shape.
Change in duration OR rate of development of a trait.

24. Figure Homologous structures: anatomical signs of evolution

25. Timing of developmental change:
Peramorphosis = adult trait expressed in juvenile
(ontogeny does recapitulate)
Two ways:
acceleration of development
b) increased duration of development
Ex.,

26. Hypermorphosis ~ gigantism

27. Timing of developmental change:
Paedomorphosis = juvenile traits expressed in mature reproducing adult
Two ways:
retardation of development
b) decreased duration of development
Ex., neotonic salamanders
domesticated animal playfulness
***Large changes in morphology can occur through relatively simple changes in rates or timing of development***

28. F. Vestigial Structures
Vestigial = structures with no apparent current function, resembling presumed ancestors.
Consistent with predictions from Natural Selection, that leftovers of change can be found.
Ex.’s

29. G. Molecular Record
Natural Selection results in the accumulation of genetic changes, reflected in the DNA.
Compare degree of similarity in DNA sequences among organisms.
Example: human hemoglobin peptide

30. Figure   Molecular data and the evolutionary relationships of vertebrates

31. Now onto Systematics and Phylogenies