1. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 1 Caches °Why is caching needed? Technological development and Moore’s Law °Why are caches successful? Principle of locality °Three basic models and how they work (in detail) Direct mapped, fully associative, set associative °How they interact with the pipeline °Performance analysis of caches Average Memory Access Time (AMAT) °Enhancements to caches

2. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 2 1977: DRAM actually faster than microprocessors !! Apple ][ (1977) Steve Wozniak Steve Jobs CPU: 1000 ns DRAM: 400 ns

3. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 3 Since 1980, CPU has outpaced DRAM... CPU 60% per yr 2X in 1.5 yrs DRAM 9% per yr 2X in 10 yrs 10 DRAM CPU Performance (1/latency) 100 1000 19 80 20 00 19 90 Year Gap grew 50% per year

4. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 4 How do computer architectures address the gap? CPU 60% per yr 2X in 1.5 yrs DRAM 9% per yr 2X in 10 yrs 10 DRAM CPU Performance (1/latency) 100 1000 19 80 20 00 19 90 Year Gap grew 50% per year Put smaller, faster “cache” memories between CPU and DRAM. Create a “memory hierarchy”.

5. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 5 The Goal: illusion of large, fast, cheap memory °Fact: Large memories are slow, fast memories are small °How do we create a memory that is large, cheap and fast (most of the time)? Hierarchy Parallelism Let programs address a memory space that scales to the disk size, at a speed that is usually as fast as register access

6. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 6 An Expanded View of the Memory System Control Datapath Memory Processor Memory Fastest Slowest Smallest Biggest Highest Lowest Speed: Size: Cost: Memory Hierarchy

7. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 7 Levels of the Memory Hierarchy CPU Registers 100s Bytes <10s ns Cache K Bytes 10-100 ns 1-0.1 cents/bit Main Memory M Bytes 200ns- 500ns $.0001-.00001 cents /bit Disk G Bytes, 10 ms (10,000,000 ns) 10 - 10 cents/bit -5 -6 Capacity Access Time Cost Tape infinite sec-min 10 -8 Registers Cache Memory Disk Tape Instr. Operands Blocks Pages Files Staging Xfer Unit prog./compiler 1-8 bytes cache cntl 8-128 bytes OS 512-4K bytes user/operator Mbytes Upper Level Lower Level faster Larger

8. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 8 Memory Hierarchy: Apple iMac G5 iMac G5 1.6 GHz 07 RegL1 InstL1 DataL2DRAMDisk Size 1K64K32K512K256M80G Latency Cycles, Time 1, 0.6 ns 3, 1.9 ns 3, 1.9 ns 11, 6.9 ns 88, 55 ns 10 7, 12 ms Managed by compiler Managed by hardware Managed by OS, hardware, application

9. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 9 iMac’s PowerPC 970: All caches on-chip (1K) R eg ist er s 512K L2 L1 (64K Instruction) L1 (32K Data)

10. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 10 The Principle of Locality °The Principle of Locality: Program access a relatively small portion of the address space at any instant of time. °Two Different Types of Locality: Temporal Locality (Locality in Time): If an item is referenced, it will tend to be referenced again soon (e.g., loops, reuse) Spatial Locality (Locality in Space): If an item is referenced, items whose addresses are close by tend to be referenced soon (e.g., straightline code, array access) °Last 15 years, HW relied heavily on locality for speed Locality is a universal property of programs which is exploited in many aspects of HW and SW design.

11. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 11 Programs with locality cache well... Donald J. Hatfield, Jeanette Gerald: Program Restructuring for Virtual Memory. IBM Systems Journal 10(3): 168-192 (1971) Time Memory Address (one dot per access) Spatial Locality Temporal Locality Bad locality behavior

12. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 12 Memory Hierarchy Use of Locality °Temporal Locality (Locality in Time): => Keep most recently accessed data items closer to the processor °Spatial Locality (Locality in Space): => Move blocks of contiguous words to the upper levels Lower Level Memory Upper Level Memory To Processor From Processor Blk X Blk Y

13. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 13 Memory Hierarchy: Terminology °Hit: data appears in some block in the upper level Hit Rate: the fraction of memory access found in the upper level Hit Time: Time to access the upper level which consists of Time to determine hit/miss + time to deliver block to processor °Miss: data needs to be retrieve from a block in the lower level Miss Rate = 1 - (Hit Rate) Miss Time: Time to determine hit/miss + Time to replace a block in the upper level + Time to deliver the block to the processor Miss Penalty: Extra time incurred for a miss = Time to replace a block in the upper level °Hit Time << Miss Penalty and Miss Time Lower Level Memory Upper Level Memory To Processor From Processor Blk X Blk Y

14. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 14 °Q1: Where can a block be placed in the upper level? (Block placement) °Q2: How is a block found if it is in the upper level? (Block identification) °Q3: Which block should be replaced on a miss? (Block replacement) °Q4: What happens on a write? (Write strategy) Four Organizing Principles for Caches and Memory Hierarchy

15. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 15 °Block 12 placed in 8 block cache: Fully associative, direct mapped, 2-way set associative 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Block no. Fully associative: block 12 can go anywhere 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Block no. Direct mapped: block 12 can go only into block 4 (12 mod 8) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Block no. Set associative: block 12 can go anywhere in set 0 (12 mod 4) Set 0 Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 Block-frame address 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 Block no. Q1: Where can a block be placed in the upper level?

16. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 16 Example: 1 KB Direct Mapped Cache with 32 B Blocks °For a 2 ** N byte cache: The uppermost (32 - N) bits are always the Cache Tag The lowest M bits are the Byte Select (Block Size = 2 ** M) Cache Index 0 1 2 3 : Cache Data Byte 0 0431 : Cache TagExample: 0x50 Ex: 0x01 0x50 Stored as part of the cache “state” Valid Bit : 31 Byte 1Byte 31 : Byte 32Byte 33Byte 63 : Byte 992Byte 1023 : Cache Tag Byte Select Ex: 0x00 9 Block address

17. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 17 Example: Fully Associative °Fully Associative Cache Forget about the Cache Index Compare the Cache Tags of all cache entries in parallel Example: Block Size = 32 B blocks, we need N 27-bit comparators : Cache Data Byte 0 0431 : Cache Tag (27 bits long) Valid Bit : Byte 1Byte 31 : Byte 32Byte 33Byte 63 : Cache Tag Byte Select Ex: 0x01 X X X X X

18. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 18 Example : Set Associative Cache °N-way set associative: N entries for each Cache Index N direct mapped caches operates in parallel °Example: Two-way set associative cache Cache Index selects a “set” from the cache The two tags in the set are compared to the input in parallel Data is selected based on the tag result Cache Data Cache Block 0 Cache TagValid ::: Cache Data Cache Block 0 Cache TagValid ::: Cache Index Mux 01 Sel1Sel0 Cache Block Compare Adr Tag Compare OR Hit

19. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 19 °Direct indexing (using index and block offset), tag compares, or combination °Increasing associativity shrinks index, expands tag Block offset Block Address Tag Index Q2: How is a block found if it is in the upper level?

20. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 20 °Easy for Direct Mapped °Set Associative or Fully Associative: Random LRU (Least Recently Used) Associativity:2-way4-way8-way SizeLRU Random LRU Random LRU Random 16 KB5.2%5.7% 4.7%5.3% 4.4%5.0% 64 KB1.9%2.0% 1.5%1.7% 1.4%1.5% 256 KB1.15%1.17% 1.13% 1.13% 1.12% 1.12% Q3: Which block should be replaced on a miss?

21. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 21 °Writes occur less frequently than reads: Under MIPS: 7% of all memory traffic are writes 25% of all data traffic are writes °Thus, Amdahl’s Law implies that caches should be optimized for reads. However, we cannot ignore writes. °Problems with writes: Must check tag BEFORE writing into the cache Only a portion of the cache block is modified Write stalls - CPU must wait until the write completes Q4: What happens on a write?

22. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 22 °Write through—The information is written to both the block in the cache and to the block in the lower- level memory. °Write back—The information is written only to the block in the cache. The modified cache block is written to main memory only when it is replaced. is block clean or dirty? °Pros and Cons of each? WT: read misses don’t cause writes; easier to implement; copy of data always exists WB: write at the speed of the cache; multiple writes to cache before write to memory; less memory BW consumed Q4: What happens on a write: Design Options

23. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 23 °A Write Buffer is needed between the Cache and Memory Processor: writes data into the cache and the write buffer Memory controller: write contents of the buffer to memory °Write buffer is just a FIFO: Typical number of entries: 4 Works fine if: Store frequency (w.r.t. time) << 1 / DRAM write cycle °Memory system designer’s nightmare: Store frequency (w.r.t. time) > 1 / DRAM write cycle Write buffer saturation Processor Cache Write Buffer DRAM Write Buffer for Write Through

24. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 24 Write Buffer Saturation °Store frequency (w.r.t. time) > 1 / DRAM write cycle If this condition exist for a long period of time (CPU cycle time too quick and/or too many store instructions in a row): -Store buffer will overflow no matter how big you make it -The CPU Cycle Time <= DRAM Write Cycle Time °Solution for write buffer saturation: Use a write back cache Install a second level (L2) cache: (does this always work?) Processor Cache Write Buffer DRAM Processor Cache Write Buffer DRAM L2 Cache

25. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 25 Write Miss Design Options °Write allocate (“fetch on write”) - block is loaded on a write miss, followed by the write. °No-write allocate (“write around”) - block is modified in the lower level, not loaded into the cache.

26. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 26 °Assume: a 16-bit write to memory location 0x0 and causes a miss Do we read in the block? -Yes: Write Allocate -No: Write Not Allocate Cache Index 0 1 2 3 : Cache Data Byte 0 0431 : Cache TagExample: 0x00 Ex: 0x00 0x50 Valid Bit : 31 Byte 1Byte 31 : Byte 32Byte 33Byte 63 : Byte 992Byte 1023 : Cache Tag Byte Select Ex: 0x00 9 Write-miss Policy: Write Allocate versus Not Allocate

27. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 27 Impact on Cycle Time Example: direct map allows miss signal after data IR PC I -Cache D Cache AB R T IRex IRm IRwb miss invalid Miss Cache Hit Time: directly tied to clock rate increases with cache size increases with associativity Average Memory Access time (AMAT) = Hit Time + Miss Rate x Miss Penalty Compute Time = IC x CT x (ideal CPI + memory stalls)

28. CIS429/529 Cache Basics 28 °For in-order pipeline, 2 options: Freeze pipeline in Mem stage (popular early on: Sparc, R4000) IF ID EX Mem stall stall stall … stall Mem Wr IF ID EX stall stall stall … stall stall Ex Wr Use Full/Empty bits in registers + MSHR queue -MSHR = “Miss Status/Handler Registers” (Kroft) Each entry in this queue keeps track of status of outstanding memory requests to one complete memory line. –Per cache-line: keep info about memory address. –For each word: register (if any) that is waiting for result. –Used to “merge” multiple requests to one memory line -New load creates MSHR entry and sets destination register to “Empty”. Load is “released” from pipeline. -Attempt to use register before result returns causes instruction to block in decode stage. -Limited “out-of-order” execution with respect to loads. Popular with in-order superscalar architectures. °Out-of-order pipelines already have this functionality built in… (load queues, etc). What happens on a Cache miss?