1. Distributed Operating Systems CS551 Colorado State University at Lockheed-Martin Lecture 9 -- Spring 2001

2. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 92 CS551: Lecture 9 n Topics – Distributed Security (Chapter 11) n Cryptography & Digital Signatures n Authentication n Access Controls (Firewalls) – Other Algorithms

3. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 93 Terms n Computer security: “frequently consists of two parts: authentication and access control” n Authentication: “involves the verification and identification of a valid user” n Access control: “strives to prevent unwanted tampering with data files and system resources”

4. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 94 Terms, continued n Encryption: “encoding data using a key in such a manner that an eavesdropper cannot easily read the data” n Plaintext: “ the original data” n Ciphertext: “the encrypted data” n Decryption: “going from ciphertext to plaintext”

5. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 95 Terms, concluded n Computationally secure: “An encryption algorithm is computationally secure if the system cannot be broken by systematic analysis with available resources.” n Private key versus public key n Symmetric versus asymmetric encryption

6. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 96 Simple Encryption n Cereal box code ring n See Java assignment on encryption – Caesar cipher – Polyalphabetic cipher

7. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 97 Figure 11.1 Alice and Bob Use Cryptography. Read I as J in Cypher text

8. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 98 Symmetric Encryption n “encryption algorithms where the encryption and the decryption algorithm utilize the same key” n Examples: – Caesar cipher – Polyalphabetic cipher n Key must be private n “Secret-key encryption” n Q: how to communicate the key? – Diffie-Hellman key exchange

9. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 99 Figure 11.5 Diffie-Hellman Key exchange.

10. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 910 DES: Data Encryption Standard n Popular private key encryption method n US standard (NIST 1977) n Based on IBM’s LUCIFER system n 64-bit key (8 for error detection) n Encrypts data in blocks of 64 bits n 70,000,000,000,000,000 possible keys n Three-phrase encryption and decryption

11. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 911 DES Phase 1: Initial Permutation n A permutation of the 64-bit block, changing the order of bits within each block n Each 64-bits broken up into two halves – L 0, left half – R 0, right half n See DES Permutation Table – E.g. the new first bit was the 58 th bit – The new last bit was the 7 th bit

12. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 912 Table 11.1 DES Initial Permutation [NIST77].

13. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 913 DES Phase 2: Shifting (16 times) n Table-dependent n Each shift uses different subblock of key n Which subblock is used is determined by – another set of tables – its own shifting algorithm n The subscripts of the left and right halves are incremented with each shift

14. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 914 DES Phase 3: Inverse Permutation n Similar to Phase 1 – Permutes order of bits within each block n Employs the DES Inverse Permutation table n Generates the final ciphertext n See figure 11.2

15. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 915 Table 11.2 DES Inverse Permutation [NIST77].

16. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 916 Figure 11.2 The Three Phases of DES.

17. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 917 Triple DES n Enhanced security n Employs three 64-bit keys n DES is used three times on the data, each time with a different key – E(P, k 1 ) = C 1 – E(C 1, k 2 ) = C 2 – E(C 2, k 3 ) = C 3 (ciphertext)

18. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 918 Figure 11.3 Triple DES.

19. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 919 Asymmetric Encryption n Involves two keys – A public key, k u – A private key, k r n E(P, k u ) = C and D(C, k r ) = P OR n E(P, k r ) = C and D(C, k u ) = P n Do not decrypt ciphertext with same key as encryption key n Mathematically difficult to obtain one key from the other n Example: Diffie-Hellman, 1976

20. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 920 Figure 11.4 Public-Key Cryptography. Output is ???? Where K r != K u Does not use K r Appears to use K u

21. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 921 RSA n By Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman (1978) n A public-key encryption algorithm n Patented n Three phases

22. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 922 RSA Phase 1 n Determining public and private keys 1. Choose two large prime numbers, P and Q 2. Compute N = P * Q 3. Compute F(N) = (P – 1) (Q – 1) 4. Choose e: 1 <= e <= N–1; GCD (e, F(N)) = 1 5. Compute d, where ed = 1 (mod F(N)) 6. Make d and N public as they make up the public key

23. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 923 RSA Phases 2 and 3 n Phase 2: Encrypting the message, M – 1 <= M <= N – 1 – C = M e (mod N), ciphertext n Phase 3: Decrypting the ciphertext, C – C d (mod N) = M, original message

24. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 924 RSA Example n Phase 1: 1. Alice chooses P=5, Q=11 2. So, N = P*Q = 55 3. F(N) = (P - 1) (Q - 1) = 40 4. Choose e = 7 [GCD(40,7) = 1] 5. Determine D = 23 since 7*23 (mod 40) = 161 (mod 40) = 1

25. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 925 RSA Example, continued n Phase 2 1. Send message M = 25 2. Compute C = M e (mod N) = 25 7 (mod 55) = 610,351,625 (mod 55) = 20 (ciphertext)

26. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 926 RSA Example, concluded n Phase 3 1. C = 20 2. C d (mod N) = M So 20 23 (mod 55) = 8388608 *10 23 (mod 55) = 25 = M

27. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 927 Figure 11.5 Diffie-Hellman Key exchange.

28. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 928 Diffie-Hellman Example 1. Alice and Bob agree to let p=11, a=7 2. Alice generates x=5, where 2 <= 5 <= 11-1 3. Alice computes a x (mod p) = 7 5 (mod 11) = 16807 (mod 11) = 10 and sends 10 to Bob 4. Bob generates y=8, where 2 <= 8 <= 11 5. Bob computes a y (mod p) = 7 8 (mod 11) = 5,764,801 (mod 11) = 9 and sends 9 to Alice 6. Bob computes (a x ) y (mod p) = (7 5 ) 8 (mod 11) = 7 5*8 (mod 11) 7. Alice computes (a y ) x (mod p) = (7 8 ) 5 (mod 11) = 7 8*5 (mod 11)

29. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 929 Digital Signatures with Public-Key Encryption n Employs RSA n May use private key to encrypt – Entire file (expensive) – Just signature n Advantage: no key distribution problems n Recipient may use public key to decrypt and verify origin n Only proper public key will decrypt

30. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 930 Authentication n Several steps necessary n First step is verifying identity of user n Three methods – User password – User key – Uniqueness of user (fingerprint, retina pattern) n Note: these methods work on centralized systems as well

31. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 931 Authentication in a DS n Concerns: – Eavesdropping – Multiple password management – Replay – Trust n Common solution: certificates

32. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 932 Certificates n “a computer-generated, frequently time- valid, authenticated packet of information” n Time-valid => prevents later replay – Can be done with timestamp or nonce – Nonce: “a random value unique for each communication” n Two approaches: – List of certificates, e.g. X.509 – Centralized certificate distribution center

33. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 933 Figure 11.6 Certificate List Utilized in Secure RPC.

34. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 934 Figure 11.7 Three-Way X.509 Authentication.

35. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 935 Figure 11.8 Chaining Certificate Authorities in X.509.

36. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 936 Figure 11.9 Kerberos Phase 1 Details. ID T = Ticket Granting Service’s ID ID C = Client’s ID ID S = Server’s ID N i = Nonce value K C = Client’s private key K S = Application Server’s key K T = Ticket Granting Service’s private key K 1 = System Ticket K 2 = Service Ticket T S = Starting Time Stamp T E = Ending Time Stamp E(a,K) = Applications on encryption algorithm to a with key K

37. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 937 Figure 11.10 Kerberos Phase 2 Details.

38. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 938 Figure 11.11 Kerberos Phase 3 Details.

39. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 939 Access Control (Firewalls) n Firewall: “should be immune to security threats and prevent all security threats from passing through the wall and to the system(s) it protects” n Categories – Packet-filtering gateways – Proxy services n Both types may be used together

40. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 940 Packet Filtering Gateways n “involves a security engineer who must explicitly state what may pass through the wall … what internal information may go out of the firewall as well as what outside locations are allowed … may specify what internal computer services may be shared with the outside world.” n “generally implemented on the router that connects the internal system to the outside world”

41. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 941 Firewall Routers n “provide a better user interface” n “easier to configure for security-based filtering” n Uses source/destination IP addresses n Checks IP addresses against table of rules

42. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 942 Proxy Servers n “represents an internal client’s services to the outside world” n Two basic types – Application-level gateway proxy services – Circuit-level proxy services

43. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 943 Application-level gateways n Bastion hosts n Dual-homed hosts

44. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 944 Circuit-level gateways n Transparent to user

45. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 945 Firewall Architectures n Bastion host architecture n Filtering host architecture n Filtering subnet architecture

46. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 946 Figure 11.12 Bastion Host Firewall Architecture.

47. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 947 Figure 11.13 Filtering Host Firewall Architecture.

48. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 948 Figure 11.14 Filtering Subnet Firewall Architecture.

49. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 949 Agreement Protocols n Distributed processes sometimes must agree n If some sites are faulty, this can be difficult – Need to identify/isolate the faults n Model assumptions: – n PEs, at most m PEs are faulty – PEs can communicate directly with each other – Receiver can always determine sender of a msg – Communication medium is reliable – PEs can fail

50. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 950 Synchronous Computation n A step (or round) consists of the following: – Receive messages – Compute – Send messages n PEs in lockstep n This model is assumed

51. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 951 Asynchronous Computation n No synchronization – At any time, a PE can n Send messages n Compute n Receive messages n Agreement problem is unsolvable in this case

52. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 952 PE Failure Model (modes) n Crash fault – PE stops, does not restart n Omission fault – PE omits to send a message that it should have n Malicious fault – Random behavior n E.g. sends fictitious messages n If a non-faulty PE doesn’t receive a message, it can make up a message

53. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 953 Authenticated Messages n Also called signed messages n A message cannot be forged or modified by a faulty PE n Non-authenticated messages – PE can forge or modify a message n As it relays it to the next node

54. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 954 Performance n Time – Number of rounds to reach agreement n Message traffic – Number of messages needed to reach agreement n Storage overhead – Amount of information stored at each node

55. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 955 Types of Agreement Problems n Byzantine Agreement Problem n Consensus Problem n Interactive Consistency Problem Recall Lamport’s Byzantine Generals paper

56. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 956 Byzantine Agreement Problems n An arbitrary (source) PE broadcasts a value n Solution: – Agreement n All non-faulty PEs agree on one value – Validity n If source PE is non-faulty, then agree on source’s initial value – If source is faulty, can agree on any value – Faulty PE can agree or not (don’t care)

57. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 957 Consensus Problems n All PEs broadcast initial values to all PEs n Solution: – Agreement n All non-faulty PEs agree on one value – Validity n If all non-faulty PEs start with same value, they will agree on that value

58. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 958 Interactive Consistency Problem n All PEs broadcast initial values to all PEs n Solution: – Agreement n All non-faulty PEs agree on vector v 1, v 2, …, v n – Validity n If i th PE is non-faulty and its value is v i, then all non-faulty PEs end with v i as i th value

59. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 959 How the problems compare n Byzantine is special case of interactive problem – Only uses one of the vector values n If each PE runs a copy of Byzantine, then this is the same as solving the interactive problem n Can use interactive to solve consensus problem – Can agree to use a majority value in vector n So, can derive all solutions from a solution to the Byzantine problem – So only consider the Byzantine

60. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 960 Byzantine Solutions n All PEs must exchange messages to reach consensus – Send their own values – Relay received values – Faulty PEs will be confusing n Limit on number of faulty PEs

61. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 961 Limit on Faulty PEs n Limit: m <= floor ( (n-1) / 3 ) n Need m+1 rounds of message exchanges (at least) n E.g if n = 4, then m <= 1 – If m = 1, then each non-faulty PE gets 3 messages n It can take the majority value – The faulty PE will always be outvoted

62. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 962 Lamport – Shostak - Pease n Given n PEs and less than m faulty PEs – n >= 3m + 1 n Recursive algorithm – OM(0) – Oral Message Algorithm n Source sends its value to all other PEs n Each PE uses the value it receives for the source

63. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 963 Lamport-Shostak-Pease: Example P0P0 P2P2 P3P3 P1P1 OM(0) 7 7 7 7

64. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 964 L-S-P: Example, continued P0P0 P2P2 P3P3 P1P1 OM(1) 7 7 3 7 7 7 7 7 7 2 P 2 is faulty

65. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 965 L-S-P: Example, continued P0P0 P2P2 P3P3 P1P1 OM(1) 7 7,3,7 7,2,7 7,7,7

66. 11 April 2001CS-551, Lecture 966 L-S-P: Example, concluded P0P0 P2P2 P3P3 P1P1 OM(1) 7 7 7 7 Now try an example with N=7 and M=2