1. CSCE 3121 Computer Organization Lecture 1 Bryant’s Book Chapter 1

2. CSCE 3122 Course Overview Topics: – Theme – Five great realities of computer systems – Computer System Overview – Summary – NOTE: Most slides are from the textbook and the co-author Randal E Bryant of Carnegie Mellon University

3. CSCE 3123 Course Theme Abstraction is good, but don’t forget reality! Courses to date emphasize abstraction – Abstract data types – Asymptotic analysis These abstractions have limits – Especially in the presence of bugs – Need to understand underlying implementations Useful outcomes – Become more effective programmers Able to find and eliminate bugs efficiently Able to tune program performance – Prepare for later “systems” classes in CSE & ECE Compilers, Operating Systems, Networks, Computer Architecture, Embedded Systems

4. CSCE 3124 Great Reality #1 Int’s are not Integers, Float’s are not Reals Examples – Is x 2 ≥ 0? Float’s: Yes! Int’s: – 40000 * 40000 --> 1600000000 – 50000 * 50000 --> ?? – Is (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)? Unsigned & Signed Int’s: Yes! Float’s: – (1e20 + -1e20) + 3.14 --> 3.14 – 1e20 + (-1e20 + 3.14) --> ??

5. CSCE 3125 Computer Arithmetic Does not generate random values – Arithmetic operations have important mathematical properties Cannot assume “usual” properties – Due to finiteness of representations – Integer operations satisfy “ring” properties Commutativity, associativity, distributivity – Floating point operations satisfy “ordering” properties Monotonicity, values of signs Observation – Need to understand which abstractions apply in which contexts – Important issues for compiler writers and serious application programmers – Entire courses offered on computer arithmetic (ECEN 653)

6. CSCE 3126 Great Reality #2 You’ve got to know assembly Chances are, you’ll never write a program in assembly – Compilers are much better & more patient than humans Understanding assembly key to understanding machine-level execution model – Behavior of programs in presence of bugs High-level language model breaks down – Tuning program performance Understanding sources of program inefficiency – Implementing system software Compiler has machine code as target Operating systems must manage process state

7. CSCE 3127 Assembly Code Example Time Stamp Counter – Special 64-bit register in Intel-compatible machines – Incremented every clock cycle – Read with rdtsc instruction Application – Measure time required by a procedure P In units of clock cycles double t; start_counter(); P(); t = get_counter(); printf("P required %f clock cycles\n", t);

8. CSCE 3128 Code to Read Counter – Write small amount of assembly code using GCC’s asm facility – Inserts assembly code into machine code generated by compiler static unsigned cyc_hi = 0; static unsigned cyc_lo = 0; /* Set *hi and *lo to the high and low order bits of the cycle counter. */ void access_counter(unsigned *hi, unsigned *lo) { asm("rdtsc; movl %edx,%0; movl %eax,%1" : "=r" (*hi), "=r" (*lo) : : "%edx", "%eax"); }

9. CSCE 3129 Code to Read Counter /* Record the current value of the cycle counter. */ void start_counter() { access_counter(&cyc_hi, &cyc_lo); } /* Number of cycles since the last call to start_counter. */ double get_counter() { unsigned ncyc_hi, ncyc_lo; unsigned hi, lo, borrow; /* Get cycle counter */ access_counter(&ncyc_hi, &ncyc_lo); /* Do double precision subtraction */ lo = ncyc_lo - cyc_lo; borrow = lo > ncyc_lo; hi = ncyc_hi - cyc_hi - borrow; return (double) hi * (1 << 30) * 4 + lo; }

10. CSCE 31210 Great Reality #3 Memory Matters Memory is not unbounded – It must be allocated and managed – Many applications are memory dominated Memory referencing bugs especially pernicious – Effects are distant in both time and space Memory performance is not uniform – Cache and virtual memory effects can greatly affect program performance – Adapting program to characteristics of memory system can lead to major speed improvements

11. CSCE 31211 Memory Referencing Errors C and C++ do not provide any memory protection – Out of bounds array references – Invalid pointer values – Abuses of malloc/free Can lead to nasty bugs – Whether or not bug has any effect depends on system and compiler – Action at a distance Corrupted object logically unrelated to one being accessed Effect of bug may be first observed long after it is generated How can I deal with this? – Program in Java, Lisp, or ML – Understand what possible interactions may occur – Use or develop tools to detect referencing errors – Use debugged library routines

12. CSCE 31212 Great Reality #4 There’s more to performance than asymptotic complexity Constant factors matter too! – Easily see 10:1 performance range depending on how code written – Must optimize at multiple levels: algorithm, data representations, procedures, and loops Must understand system to optimize performance – How programs compiled and executed – How to measure program performance and identify bottlenecks – How to improve performance without destroying code modularity and generality

13. CSCE 31213 Great Reality #5 Computers do more than execute programs They need to get data in and out – I/O system critical to program reliability and performance They communicate with each other over networks – Many system-level issues arise in presence of network Concurrent operations by autonomous processes Coping with unreliable media Cross platform compatibility Complex performance issues

14. CSCE 31214 Course Overview Topics: – Theme – Five great realities of computer systems – Computer System Overview – Summary – NOTE: Most slides are from the textbook and the co-author Randal E Bryant of Carnegie Mellon University

15. Terms Bit, byte, word KB, MB, GB… sec, ms, us, ns, ps

16. Hardware Organization Main memory I/O bridge Bus interface ALU Register file System busMemory bus Disk controller Graphics adapter USB controller Mouse KeyboardDisplay Disk I/O bus Expansion slots for other devices such as network adapters hello executable stored on disk PC CPU

17. Inside Pentium 4

18. CPU: Central Processing Unit ALU: Arithmetic/Logic Unit PC: Program Counter USB: Universal Serial Bus Hardware Organization

19. Main Memory A temporary storage device that holds both a program and the data it manipulates. Consists of a collection of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) chips. Logically a linear array of bytes.

20. Processor The engine that interprets instructions stored in main memory. At any point in time, the PC points at some machine language instruction in main memory. A processor repeatedly executes the instruction pointed at by the PC. A processor operates according to a very simple instruction execution model, defined by its instruction set architecture (ISA).

21. Abstraction Both hardware and software consists of hierarchical layers (abstraction). – To cope with the complexity of computer systems. The interface between the hardware and low- level software: Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

22. ISA Includes anything programmers need to know to make a binary machine language program work correctly. Includes instructions, I/O devices, and so on. Modern ISAs: – 80x86/Pentium, PowerPC, DEC Alpha, MIPS, SPARC, HP, …

23. What is Computer Architecture? Computer Architecture = Instruction Set Architecture + Machine Organization

24. What Is Computer Architecture? I/O systemInstr. Set Proc. Compiler Operating System Application Digital Design Circuit Design Instruction Set Architecture Firmware Datapath & Control Layout

25. Register File, ALU The register file is a small storage device that consists of a collection of word-sized registers, each with its own unique name. The ALU computes new data and address values (add, subtract, multiply, divide, or, and, xor, etc.)

26. CSCE 31226 Memory Hierarchy Local disks hold files retrieved from disks on remote network servers. Main memory holds disk blocks retrieved from local disks. Registers On-chip L1 cache (SRAM ) Main memory (DRAM) Local secondary storage (local disks) Larger, slower, and cheaper (per byte) storage devices Remote secondary storage (distributed file systems, Web servers) Off-chip L2 cache (SRAM) L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved from the L2 cache. CPU registers hold words retrieved from cache memory. L2 cache holds cache lines retrieved from memory. L0: L1: L2: L3: L4: L5: Smaller, faster, and costlier (per byte) storage devices

27. Memory Hierarchy DISK MEMORY CACHE REGISTERS Faster SlowerLarger Smaller

28. CSCE 31228 Cache Memory Main memory (DRAM) Memory bridge Bus interface L2 cache (SRAM) ALU Register file CPU chip Cache busSystem busMemory bus L1 cache (SRAM)

29. Memory Hierarchy Storage at one level serves as a cache for storage at the next lower level. The register file is a cache for the L1 cache, L1 is a cache for L2, and so forth.

30. Operating System A layer of software interposed between the application program and the hardware. All attempts by an application program to manipulate the hardware must go through the OS. Two primary purposes of OS – Protect HW from misuse by runaway applications. – Provide applications with simple and uniform mechanisms for manipulating complicated and often wildly different low- level hardware devices.

31. CSCE 31231 OS abstracts HW Application programs ProcessorMain memoryI/O devices Operating system Software Hardware ProcessorMain memoryI/O devices Processes Files Virtual memory

32. Process The operating system’s abstraction for a running program. Multiple processes can run concurrently on the same machine. – Traditional systems (uniprocessor) can execute only one program at a time. – Multicore processors can execute several programs simultaneously.

33. Process In either case, a single CPU can execute multiple processes concurrently by having the processor switch among them. => Context switch The OS keeps track of all the state information (context) that the process needs in order to run. Context: PC value, register file values, …

34. Process At any point in time, a uniprocessor system can only execute the code for a single process. When the OS decides to transfer control from the current process to another process, it performs a context switch by saving the context of the current process, restoring the context of the new process, and passing control to the new process.

35. Thread A process can actually consists of multiple execution units, called threads, each running in the context of the process and sharing the same code and global data.

36. Virtual Memory An abstraction that provides each process with the illusion that it has exclusive use of the main memory. Each process has the same uniform view of memory, called virtual address space.

37. CSCE 31237 Memory Performance Example Implementations of Matrix Multiplication – Multiple ways to nest loops /* ijk */ for (i=0; i<n; i++) { for (j=0; j<n; j++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum; } /* ijk */ for (i=0; i<n; i++) { for (j=0; j<n; j++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum; } /* jik */ for (j=0; j<n; j++) { for (i=0; i<n; i++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum } /* jik */ for (j=0; j<n; j++) { for (i=0; i<n; i++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum }

38. CSCE 31238 jki kij kji Matmult Performance (Alpha 21164) Too big for L1 CacheToo big for L2 Cache

39. CSCE 31239 Blocked matmult Performance (Alpha 21164) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 5075100125150175200225250275300325350375400425450475500 matrix size (n) bijk bikj ijk ikj

40. CSCE 31240 Course Perspective Most Systems Courses are Builder-Centric – Computer Architecture Design pipelined processor in Verilog – Operating Systems Implement large portions of operating system – Compilers Write compiler for simple language – Networking Implement and simulate network protocols

41. CSCE 31241 Course Perspective (Cont.) Our Course is Programmer-Centric – Purpose is to show how by knowing more about the underlying system, one can be more effective as a programmer – Enable you to Write programs that are more reliable and efficient Incorporate features that require hooks into OS – E.g., concurrency, signal handlers – Not just a course for dedicated hackers We bring out the hidden hacker in everyone – Cover material in this course that you won’t see elsewhere

42. CSCE 31242 Summary The computer system is more than just hardware! We need to understand both the hardware and system interfaces to properly use a computer We shall focus on more details to such concepts through out this course.