1. Building an information architecture
Chapter 09
Building an information architecture

2. Objectives and outcomes
Identify the parts of an information architecture strategy
Review information architecture techniques and tools
Understand the success factors for design of information architecture for a range of information environments
Assess the factors contributing to an effective information architecture

3. Management issues
How do I match information architecture to business processes?
Which information modelling tool do I select?
How do we design information architecture for an intranet?
How can our information systems interoperate?
How can I develop information security policies?

4. Introduction
Information Architecture : ‘definition and structure of organizational information related to information systems’
Systems Development Lifecycle: ‘A model representing sequential stages for systems development’
IEEE: ‘architected’ systems seem to turn out ‘faster, better and cheaper’ and that ‘architecture is recognised as a critical element in the successful development and evolution of software intensive systems’

5. Systems Development lifecycle
Figure 9.1 Systems Development lifecycle
Source: (adapted from Hoffer et al, 2002)

6. Enterprise Architecture
Figure 9.2 Enterprise Architecture

7. Benefits
Key benefits of information architecture will be:
Reduction in the costs in finding information
Improved efficiency of information based organizational process
New value derived from information through reuse

8. Information Architecture Process
Figure 9.3 Information Architecture Process

9. Information Architecture strategy
An overall information architecture framework for an organization related to higher level strategies
The strategy will include:
Objectives of how information architecture supports organizational strategies already defined
Relationship between information architecture and the different systems required
Details of technology integration
Procedures for applying common data and information definitions across the organization

10. Systems Analysis
The aim of the systems analysis process is to create an information model derived from evidence from the requirements stage
Information model: A conceptual model of information related to organizational functions or processes

11. Identifying information architecture requirements
Using the results from the information and knowledge audits
Identifying stakeholders
Questionnaires
Interviews
Observation
Audit of documentation

12. Information flow diagrams
A simple high-level diagram illustrating information flows
The diagram will illustrate source and destinations

13. Information flow diagram key
Figure 9.5 Information flow diagram key

14. Simple information flow illustration
Figure 9.6 Simple information flow illustration

15. Information flow diagram illustrating sales process for the Lo-Cost Airline Company
Figure 9.7 Information flow diagram illustrating sales process for the Lo-Cost Airline Company

16. Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
A graphical representation in the form of a diagram illustrating external sources, flows, processes and data stores
Data flow: ‘data in motion, moving from one place to another. A data flow could represent data on a customer order form or a payroll check.’ Hoffer et al. (2002)

17. Data flow diagram key
Figure 9.8 Data flow diagram key

18. Data flow diagram
Figure 9.9 Data flow diagram

19. Data flow diagram cont’d
Figure 9.10 Data flow diagram cont’d

20. Entity relationship diagrams
An entity is a self-contained piece of data that
can be referenced as a unit
Entity relationship diagram: A graphical representation that displays, entities, relationships and attributes

21. Entity relationship diagram key: Lo-Cost Airline Company
Figure 9.11 Entity relationship diagram key: Lo-Cost Airline Company

22. Entity Relationship Diagram: Lo-Cost Airline Company: One-to-one relationship
Figure 9.12 Entity Relationship diagram Lo-Cost Airline Company: One-to-One

23. Entity relationship Diagram: Lo-Cost Airline Company: One-to-many
Figure 9.13 Entity relationship diagram Lo-Cost Airline Company: One-to-many

24. Entity relationship Diagram: Lo-Cost Airline Company: Many-to-many
Figure 9.14 Entity relationship diagram Lo-Cost Airline Company: Many-to-many

25. Entity Relationship Diagram: Lo-Cost Airline Company decomposition
Figure 9.15 Entity Relationship diagram Lo-Cost Airline Company: decomposition

26. Final Entity Relationship Diagram: Lo-Cost Airline Company
Figure 9.16 Entity Relationship diagram Lo-Cost Airline Company

27. UML
Unified Object Modelling language
A visual modelling methodology covering the notation and ways of specifying, modelling and documenting object-oriented systems
Object: ‘A person, a thing, or concept. Building blocks of object oriented systems. Object know things and do things’

28. UML
Use case analysis: ‘A view of describing the sequence of actions and functionality a system should deliver facilitating the work of actors’
Actor: ‘Someone or something (person, organization or external system) that interacts with the system’

29. Interoperability
Interoperability: ‘The ability of computer systems to work together, conforming to common standards’
Improving efficiency in reuse of information
Avoid mistakes from duplication
Implementing enterprise search engines

30. Interoperability assessment
Table 9.6 Interoperability assessment table

31. Security Analysis
Information Security: ‘protection of information and the systems and hardware that use, store, and transmit that information’ (Whitman, 2003)
key features of information security are:
Availability. Making sure information is available to those who need it and that they can use the information when appropriate.
Authenticity. Making sure the information received is the same as the original source.
Confidentiality. Making sure information access is only available to those who require it. The opposite side to availability.
Integrity. Safeguarding the accuracy of information – is it the same as the original? Has it been altered or corrupted?

32. Security: PDCA model
Plan: establish policy, objectives, targets, processes and procedures relevant to managing risk and improving information security to deliver results in accordance with an organization’s overall policies and objectives.
Do: Implement and operate the security policy, controls, processes and procedures.
Check: Assess, and where applicable, measure process performance against security policy, objectives and practical experience and report the results to management for review.
Act: Take corrective and preventive actions, based on the results of the management review, to achieve continual improvement.

33. PDCA Model Figure 9.23 PDCA model
Source: BSI, BS 7799–2:2001, Figure 1

34. Design: database design
The process of database design requires the information architect to define the structure of a database
The process of normalisation is used to optimise the database to minimise redundancy or duplication of information
In order to ensure consistent database design across an organization, many organizations using the same types of information will use a data dictionary

35. Design: web design
Consider the difference between websites and intranets
Web blueprint: an overview sitemap indicating page types and page components and their relationship to the home page
Wireframes: also known as schematics, a way of illustrating the layout of an individual webpage

36. Web Design Process
Figure 9.27 Web design process

37. Web blueprint for a university Intranet
Figure 9.28 Web blueprint for a university Intranet

38. Basic wireframe for a university intranet with global elements
Figure 9.29 Basic wireframe for a university intranet with global elements

39. Basic wireframe for a university intranet with global elements and unique elements
Figure 9.30 Basic wireframe for a university intranet with global elements and unique elements

40. Navigation systems
Narrow and deep : few links on the pages, but more clicks requires to move down the structure the to required information destination
Broad and shallow: more links on pages, less clicks to information destination
Breadcrumbs
Search versus browse

41. Broad and shallow navigation
Figure 9.31 Broad and shallow navigation

42. Narrow and deep navigation
Figure 9.32 Narrow and deep navigation

43. Global, local and contextual navigation
Figure 9.33 Global, local and contextual navigation
Source: Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)

44. Using standards and guidelines for web design
Consistent application of design standards and organizational style
Manuals, templates and style guides
Example: UK Government web guidelines

45. Designing for Interoperability
Controlled vocabulary: a list of equivalent terms. Often enumerated
Taxonomy: a browsable hierarchy of organizational classification terms
Thesaurus: a more developed and complex controlled vocabulary, showing relationships in terms of hierarchy, equivalence and association

46. Using Extensible Markup Language – XML
XML is a vital component of interoperable information architectures
By agreeing to a given DTD or schema, a group of developers has accepted a set of rules about document vocabulary and structure
Enables information consistency

47. XML Schemas
A set of rules XML language for specifying the structures of XML document types
Documents that reference schemas must conform to the rules specified
Alternative to DTDs
Example of use: UK Government

48. See in action: Guardian Newspaper: http://www.onlineblog.com/
XML in action: RSS
A version of XML and RDF that offers a standardised way of syndicating news headlines
Core elements
Title
Link
Description
See in action: Guardian Newspaper:

49. Usability
British Standard definition: ‘extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use’ (1999)
Two parts (Badre)
Ease of learning: the time it takes users to learn how to do a job using the system compared to another method
Ease of use: the minimum number of actions required to complete a task successfully

50. Security Design Whitman (2003):
Logical security design: blueprints that examine and implement key policies
Physical security design: technology required to support the blueprints.

51. Security Policies
‘The rules for the protection of information assets of the organization’ (Whitman, 2003)
High level and targeted policies
The purpose of an acceptable use policy is to summarise the overall policy for users, outlining the responsibilities the user has to information security in the organization

52. Security design:physical
The level and use of the above technologies will be related to levels of risk assessment in the planning stage.
Options:
Deployment of firewalls
Intrusion detection systems (IDS)
Encryption technologies
Access control devices
Wireless access devices
Remote access