1. NATS 101 Lecture 10 Vertical Stability Precipitation

2. Ahrens, Fig 4.29 liquid ice mixture

3. Moist Flow over a Mountain Ahrens, Fig 5.12 These concepts can be applied to understand Temp and DP changes for moist flow over a mountain -10  C -2  C DAR -6  C MAR -6  C MAR +10  C +2  C DAR +10  C +2  C DAR +10  C +2  C DAR saturated unsaturated

4. Brain Burners Rising unsaturated (clear) air, and all sinking air Temperature changes at Dry Adiabatic Rate (DAR) of 10 o C/km Dew point changes at rate of 2 o C/km Rising saturated (cloudy) air Temperature cools at Moist Adiabatic Rate (MAR) of 6 o C/km Dew point decreases at rate of 6 o C/km

5. Archimedes’ Principle Archimedes' principle is the law of buoyancy. It states that "any body partially or completely submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body." The weight of an object acts downward, and the buoyant force provided by the displaced fluid acts upward. If the density of an object is greater/less than the density of water, the object will sink/float. Demo: Diet vs. Regular Soda (last lecture). http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/blowballast/sub/work2.htm

6. Concept of Stability Stable Rock always returns to starting point Unstable Rock never returns to starting point Conditionally Unstable Rock never returns if rolled past top of initial hill Ahrens, Fig 5.1

7. Ahrens, Fig 5.3 Absolutely Stable: Top Rock Stable air strongly resists upward motion External force must be applied to an air parcel before it can rise Clouds that form in stable air spread out horizontally in layers, with flat bases-tops

8. Ahrens, Fig 5.5 Absolutely Unstable: Middle Rock Unstable air does not resist upward motion Clouds in unstable air stretch out vertically Absolute instability is limited to very thin layer next to ground on hot, sunny days Superadiabatic lapse rate

9. Conditionally Unstable: Lower Rock Ahrens, Fig 5.7

10. Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) ELR is the Temp change with height that is recorded by a weather balloon ELR is absolutely unstable in a thin layer just above the ground on hot, sunny days Ahrens, Meteorology Today 5th Ed. ELR is 6.5 o C/km, on average, and thus is conditionally unstable! 6.0 o C/km 10.0 o C/km 6.5 o C/km

11. Lapse Rates and Cumulus Types The ELR and depth of unstable layer modulates the type of Cu. As depth increases, the vertical extent of Cu generally increases. As temp difference between the air parcel and the environment increases, the updraft speed and severity of Cb typically increase. Ahrens, Meteorology Today 5th Ed.

12. Summary: Key Concepts I Rising unsaturated air, and all sinking air Temp changes at DAR of 10 o C/km DP changes at rate of 2 o C/km Saturation occurs with sufficient lifting Rising saturated air Latent Heating Mitigates Adia. Cooling Temp and DP cools at MAR of 6 o C/km Note that MAR is always less than DAR

13. Summary: Key Concepts II Vertical Stability Determined by ELR Absolutely Stable and Unstable Conditionally Unstable Temp Difference between ELR and Air Parcel, and Depth of Layer of Conditionally Instability Modulates Vertical Extent and Severity of Cumulus

14. Precipitation Processes

15. Supplemental References for Precipitation processes Danielson, E. W., J. Levin and E. Abrams, 1998: Meteorology. 462 pp. McGraw-Hill. (ISBN 0-697-21711-6) Gedzelman, S. D., 1980: The Science and Wonders of the Atmosphere. 535 pp. John-Wiley & Sons. (ISBN 0-471-02972-6)

16. Lapse Rates and Cumulus Types The ELR and depth of unstable layer modulates the type of Cu. As depth increases, the vertical extent of Cu generally increases. As temp difference between the air parcel and the environment increases, the updraft speed and severity of Cb typically increase. Ahrens, Meteorology Today 5th Ed.

17. Cloud Droplets to Raindrops A raindrop is 10 6 bigger than a cloud droplet Several days are needed for condensation alone to grow raindrops Yet, raindrops can form from cloud droplets in a less than one hour What processes account for such rapid growth? 10 6 bigger Ahrens, Fig. 5.15

18. Terminal Fall Speeds (upward suspension velocity) Small-Large RaindropsCloud Droplets-DrizzleCCN

19. small raindrop Area swept is smaller than area of drop Collision-Coalescence Big water drops fall faster than small drops As big drops fall, they collide with smaller drops Some of the smaller drops stick to the big drops Collision-Coalescence Drops can grow by this process in warm clouds with no ice Occurs in warm tropical clouds Collection Efficiency 10-50%

20. Warm Cloud Precipitation As cloud droplet ascends, it grows larger by collision-coalescence Cloud droplet reaches the height where the updraft speed equals terminal fall speed As drop falls, it grows by collision-coalescence to size of a large raindrop Ahrens, Fig. 5.16 Updraft (5 m/s)

21. Mixed Water-Ice Clouds Clouds that rise above freezing level contain mixture of water-ice Mixed region exists where Temps > -40 o C Only ice crystals exist where Temps < -40 o C Mid-latitude clouds are generally mixed Ahrens, Fig. 5.17 glaciated region

22. SVP over Liquid and Ice SVP over ice is less than over water because sublimation takes more energy than evaporation If water surface is not flat, but instead curves like a cloud drop, then the SVP difference is even larger So at equilibrium, more vapor resides over cloud droplets than ice crystals Ahrens, Meteorology Today 5th Ed.

23. SVP near Droplets and Ice SVP is higher over supercooled water drops than ice Ahrens, Fig. 5.18

24. Ice Crystal Process Since SVP for a water droplet is higher than for ice crystal, vapor next to droplet will diffuse towards ice Ice crystals grow at the expense of water drops, which freeze on contact As the ice crystals grow, they begin to fall Ahrens, Fig. 5.19 Effect maximized around -15 o C

25. Accretion-Aggregation Process Accretion (Riming) Aggregation Supercooled water droplets will freeze on contact with ice ice crystal Small ice particles will adhere to ice crystals snowflake Splintering Ahrens, Fig. 5.17 Also known as the Bergeron Process after the meteorologist who first recognized the importance of ice in the precipitation process

26. Summary: Key Concepts Condensation acts too slow to produce rain Several days required for condensation Clouds produce rain in less than 1 hour Warm clouds (no ice) Collision-Coalescence Process Cold clouds (with ice) Ice Crystal Process Accretion-Splintering-Aggregation

27. Examples of Precipitation Types

28. Definitions of Liquid Precipitation Williams, The Weather Book, p73

29. Temp Profiles for Precipitation Snow - Temp colder than 0 o C everywhere (generally speaking!) Sleet - Melting aloft, deep freezing layer near ground Freezing Rain - Melting aloft, shallow freezing layer at ground Rain - Deep layer of warmer than 0 o C near ground Ahrens, Meteorology Today 5th Ed.

30. Weather Conditions Associated with Precipitation Types Gedzelman, The Science and Wonders of the Atmosphere

31. Radar Estimates of Precipitation Danielson et al Radar emits pulses of EM radiation of wavelength between 3-10 cm Pulse reflects off raindrops, dust, bugs, chaff, etc. Distance from radar and intensity of precipitation can be determined from radar reflectivity Object size can be determined from amplitude of return pulse. Larger objects are more reflective. Reflections from objects farther away take longer to return.

32. Doppler Radar Danielson et al Doppler can detect motion toward or away from radar by the frequency of the return beam Higher - toward radar Lower - away from radar Doppler effect explains why pitch of whistle changes as a train approaches then moves away Frequency of return beam changes when reflective object is moving either toward or away from radar. Velocity can be determined from frequency shift. Lower frequency Higher frequency

33. Summary: Key Concepts Precipitation can take many forms Drizzle-Rain-Glazing-Sleet-Snow-Hail Depending on specific weather conditions Radar used to sense precipitation remotely Location-Rate-Type (liquid v. frozen) Cloud drops with short wavelength pulse Wind component toward and from radar

34. Assignment Topic - Precipitation Processes Reading - Ahrens p121-134 Problems - 5.14, 5.16, 5.17 Topic – Atmospheric Pressure Reading - Ahrens pg 141-148 Problems - 6.1, 6.7, 6.8

35. Assignment for Next Lecture