1. 1 Language Acquisition Helena Gao Helena Gao Lecture 10 30 Nov., 2005

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3. 3 Required readings: Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing A Language. A Uage-Based Thoery of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. Chapter two: Origins of Language. pp. 8-42 Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing A Language. A Uage-Based Thoery of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. Chapter two: Origins of Language. pp. 8-42 Lee, T. H. (2002). Two types of logical structure in child language. Journal of Cognitive Science 3: 155-182. Lee, T. H. (2002). Two types of logical structure in child language. Journal of Cognitive Science 3: 155-182. Pinker, S. (1994). The Language Instinct. New York: Morrow. Chapter 1: An instinct to acquire an art. pp. 15-24. Pinker, S. (1994). The Language Instinct. New York: Morrow. Chapter 1: An instinct to acquire an art. pp. 15-24. Recommended readings: Pinker, S. (1995). Language acquisition. In L. R. Gleitman, M. Liberman, and D. N. Osherson (eds.), An invitation to cognitive science. 2nd Ed. Volume 1: Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chapter 5: Why the child holded the baby rabbits: A case study in language acquisition. pp. 107-133. Pinker, S. (1995). Language acquisition. In L. R. Gleitman, M. Liberman, and D. N. Osherson (eds.), An invitation to cognitive science. 2nd Ed. Volume 1: Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chapter 5: Why the child holded the baby rabbits: A case study in language acquisition. pp. 107-133. Gould, J. L., & Marler, P. (1987). Learning by Instinct. Reprinted as Chapter 7 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), The Emergence of Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific American Magazine, pp. 88-103. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. Gould, J. L., & Marler, P. (1987). Learning by Instinct. Reprinted as Chapter 7 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), The Emergence of Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific American Magazine, pp. 88-103. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. Moskowitz, B. A. (1978). The Acquisition of Language. Reprinted as Chapter 10 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), The Emergence of Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific American Magazine, pp. 131-149. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. Moskowitz, B. A. (1978). The Acquisition of Language. Reprinted as Chapter 10 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), The Emergence of Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific American Magazine, pp. 131-149. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman.

4. 4 Language acquisition theories Two types of perspectives centered around “nurture” and “nature” distinction or on “empiricism” and “nativism”. centered around “nurture” and “nature” distinction or on “empiricism” and “nativism”. Empiricism: all knowledge comes from experience, ultimately from our interaction with the environment through our reasoning or senses. Empiricism: all knowledge comes from experience, ultimately from our interaction with the environment through our reasoning or senses. Nativism: at least some knowledge is not acquired through interaction with the environment, but is genetically transmitted and innate. Nativism: at least some knowledge is not acquired through interaction with the environment, but is genetically transmitted and innate.  neither nurturists (environmentalists) disagree thoroughly with the nativist ideas nor do nativists with the nurturist ideas.

5. 5 Usage Based Accounts – Theory of Language Acquisition Supported by recent research Supported by recent research characterize children’s language in terms of cognitive and communicative processes involved characterize children’s language in terms of cognitive and communicative processes involved children’s early language based on specific linguistic items and expressions they comprehend and produce children’s early language based on specific linguistic items and expressions they comprehend and produce Three processes involved: Three processes involved: Imitative learning Imitative learning Finding patterns in language Finding patterns in language Combining linguistic constructions creatively Combining linguistic constructions creatively

6. 6 Tomasello’s View (2003) The human uses of symbols is primary, with the most likely evolutionary scenario being that the human species evolved skills enabling the use of linguistic symbols phylogenetically (p. 9) The human uses of symbols is primary, with the most likely evolutionary scenario being that the human species evolved skills enabling the use of linguistic symbols phylogenetically (p. 9) The human adaptation for symbolic communication emerges in human ontogeny quite predictably across cultures at around 1 year of age. It emerges in the context of a whole suite of new social-cognitive skills, the most important for language acquisition being the establishment of joint attentional frames, the understanding communicative intentions, and a particular type of cultural learning known as role reversal imitation. (p. 19) The human adaptation for symbolic communication emerges in human ontogeny quite predictably across cultures at around 1 year of age. It emerges in the context of a whole suite of new social-cognitive skills, the most important for language acquisition being the establishment of joint attentional frames, the understanding communicative intentions, and a particular type of cultural learning known as role reversal imitation. (p. 19)

7. 7 Early skills of Intention-reading (1) The joint attentional frame (1) The joint attentional frame Joint attentional frames are defined intentionally, that is, they gain their identity and coherence from the child’s and the adult’s understandings of “what we are doing” in terms of the goal-directed activities in which we are engaged. (p. 22) Joint attentional frames are defined intentionally, that is, they gain their identity and coherence from the child’s and the adult’s understandings of “what we are doing” in terms of the goal-directed activities in which we are engaged. (p. 22) (2) Understanding communicative intentions (2) Understanding communicative intentions Children understand adult communicative intentions, including those expressed in linguistic utterances, most readily inside the common ground established by joint attentional frames. (p. 24) Children understand adult communicative intentions, including those expressed in linguistic utterances, most readily inside the common ground established by joint attentional frames. (p. 24) (3) Cultural learning in the form of role reversal imitation (3) Cultural learning in the form of role reversal imitation Children who understand that other persons have intentional relations to the world, similar to their own, may attend especially carefully to the behavioral means that these persons have devised for meeting their goals, and so may imitate their intentional actions. (p. 26) Children who understand that other persons have intentional relations to the world, similar to their own, may attend especially carefully to the behavioral means that these persons have devised for meeting their goals, and so may imitate their intentional actions. (p. 26)

8. 8 Behavioural theory  Language acquired through learning (e.g., operant conditioning, imitation) Behavioural theory  Language acquired through learning (e.g., operant conditioning, imitation) Parents and teachers model grammatically correct language and provide feedback Parents and teachers model grammatically correct language and provide feedback Evidence? Evidence? The development of grammar

9. 9 Theories of grammar development 1. 1. Behavioural theory Evidence more contrary than supportive. Evidence more contrary than supportive. Brown and Hanlon (1970)  3 findings Ungrammatical sentences rarely corrected Child:“Doggie bited daddy” Mother: “Yes, that’s right” Sentence corrected only if they are untrue Child (sees a car):“Dere’s a truck” Mother: “No, that’s a car” Ungrammatical requests as likely to be fulfilled as ungrammatical requests

10. 10 Theories of grammar development 1. 1. Behavioural theory Evidence more contrary than supportive. Evidence more contrary than supportive. Imitation? Imitation? Adults don’t use telegraphic speech Adults don’t use telegraphic speech Adults don’t over-regularize verbs Adults don’t over-regularize verbs

11. 11 Theories of grammar development Nativist/linguistic perspective Nativist/linguistic perspective Acquisition of grammar too complex, too rapid to be the result of learning Acquisition of grammar too complex, too rapid to be the result of learning Poverty of the stimulus Poverty of the stimulus Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device Genetically-specified grammatical processor Genetically-specified grammatical processor Recent evolutionary adaptation Recent evolutionary adaptation Evidence? Evidence?

12. 12 Cross-linguistic  Languages of the world conform to a Universal Grammar (Chomsky) Cross-linguistic  Languages of the world conform to a Universal Grammar (Chomsky) Genetic  Grammatical impairments run in families (Pinker) Genetic  Grammatical impairments run in families (Pinker) Comparative  Our closest evolutionary ancestors (Chimps) cannot learn grammar Comparative  Our closest evolutionary ancestors (Chimps) cannot learn grammar Dissociations  Language and general intelligence dissociate in Williams Syndrome Dissociations  Language and general intelligence dissociate in Williams Syndrome Developmental  Grammar acquired effortlessly and systematically Developmental  Grammar acquired effortlessly and systematically Theories of grammar development

13. 13 Imitation - Research findings In early infancy there is some face-to-face dyadic mimicking of behaviors (Meltzoff & Moor, 1977) In early infancy there is some face-to-face dyadic mimicking of behaviors (Meltzoff & Moor, 1977) Meltzoff (1995) found 18-month-olds appeared to understand what the adult intended to do and performed the action instead of just mimicking the adult’s actual behavior. Meltzoff (1995) found 18-month-olds appeared to understand what the adult intended to do and performed the action instead of just mimicking the adult’s actual behavior. Aktar & Tomasello (1998a) investigated infants’ imitation of accidental actions vs. intentional actions. They found that 16- month-olds mainly produced the adult’s intentional actions (there) but not the accidental ones (Woops!) Aktar & Tomasello (1998a) investigated infants’ imitation of accidental actions vs. intentional actions. They found that 16- month-olds mainly produced the adult’s intentional actions (there) but not the accidental ones (Woops!)

14. 14 2- to 3-day-old infants imitating (a) tongue protrusion, (b) mouth opening, and lip protrusion demonstrated by adult experimenters. gestures by human neonates. Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, M.K (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198. 75-78

15. 15 Early Skills of Pattern-Finding Human infants are experts from early in development in finding visual patterns (Haith & Benson, 1997) Human infants are experts from early in development in finding visual patterns (Haith & Benson, 1997) Synthesized speech exposed to 8-month-olds (Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996). Infants prefered to listen to the origial ones heard. Synthesized speech exposed to 8-month-olds (Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996). Infants prefered to listen to the origial ones heard. Marcus et al. (1999) found that 7-month-olds preferred the speech stream containing the same tri-syllabic nonsense “words” that have the same pattern (e.g., bapopo) as they originally heard (e.g., wididi, delili) Marcus et al. (1999) found that 7-month-olds preferred the speech stream containing the same tri-syllabic nonsense “words” that have the same pattern (e.g., bapopo) as they originally heard (e.g., wididi, delili) Gomez & Gerken (1999) found very similar results with 12- month-olds. Gomez & Gerken (1999) found very similar results with 12- month-olds. These results indicate that prelinguistic infants are able to find patterns in auditory stimuli of an abstract nature. (Tomasello, 2003: 30) These results indicate that prelinguistic infants are able to find patterns in auditory stimuli of an abstract nature. (Tomasello, 2003: 30)

16. 16 Universal pattern of language development 1 word babble complex grammar 2 word 36 mo6-10 mo12 mo18 mo The same pattern is observed in every culture This suggests that language is acquired as a result of highly specialized biologically programmed mechanisms operating on the linguistic input.

17. 17 Language Development: Stages and Rule Systems Brown ’ s (1973) Stages Mean Length of Utterance is a good index of child ’ s language maturity. Stages indicate growth of language complexity. Brown ’ s (1973) Stages Mean Length of Utterance is a good index of child ’ s language maturity. Stages indicate growth of language complexity. Stage 1 - 12 to 26 months of age = MLU 1.00 to 2.00 Stage 2 - 27 to 30 months of age = MLU 2.00 to 2.50 Stage 3 - 31 to 34 months of age = MLU 2.50 to 3.00 Stage 4 - 35 to 40 months of age = MLU 3.00 to 3.75 Stage 5 - 41 to 46 months of age = MLU 3.75 to 4.50

18. 18 Sensitive periods: Isolated children Genie was an isolated child … as an infant she was locked away and not spoken to. She was discovered by the authorities when aged 13. Though she acquired words, she never acquired correct grammar:

19. 19 Isolated children (cont.) By contrast, Isabelle and her mute, brain-damaged mother escaped from the imprisonment of her grandfather when she was aged 6 ½. Within eighteen months, her language was not significantly behind the level expected at her age:

20. 20 Language Exposure and Language Use Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003) Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003) examined 12 English-speaking mothers’ speech during samples of their linguistic interactions with their 2- to 3-year-old children examined 12 English-speaking mothers’ speech during samples of their linguistic interactions with their 2- to 3-year-old children

21. 21 The overall findings: Children heard an estimated 5000 to 7000 utterances per day Children heard an estimated 5000 to 7000 utterances per day Between one-quarter and one-third of these were questions. Between one-quarter and one-third of these were questions. More than 20% of these were not full adult sentences, but rather some kind of fragment (most often a noun phrase or prepositional phrase) More than 20% of these were not full adult sentences, but rather some kind of fragment (most often a noun phrase or prepositional phrase) About one-quarter of these were imperatives and utterances structured by the copula About one-quarter of these were imperatives and utterances structured by the copula Only about 15% of these had the canonical English SVO form (i.e., transitive utterances of various kinds) supposedly characteristic of the English language; and over 80% of the SVOs had a pronoun subject. Only about 15% of these had the canonical English SVO form (i.e., transitive utterances of various kinds) supposedly characteristic of the English language; and over 80% of the SVOs had a pronoun subject.

22. 22 The specific words and phrases with which mothers initiated utterances: Are you..., I'll..., It's..., Can you...., Here’s...., Let's..., Look at..., What did..., etc.

23. 23 More than half of all maternal utterances began with one of 52 highly frequent item-based frames More than half of all maternal utterances began with one of 52 highly frequent item-based frames i.e., frames used more than an estimated 40 times per day for more than half the children. i.e., frames used more than an estimated 40 times per day for more than half the children. Mostly consisting of 2 words or morphemes. Mostly consisting of 2 words or morphemes.

24. 24 More than 65% of all of the mothers’ utterances began with one of just 156 item-based frames. More than 65% of all of the mothers’ utterances began with one of just 156 item-based frames. Approximately 45% of all maternal utterances began with one of just 17 lexemes: Approximately 45% of all maternal utterances began with one of just 17 lexemes: What (8.6%), That (5.3%), It (4.2%), You (3.1%), Are/Aren't (3.0%), Do/Does/Did/Don't (2.9%), I (2.9%), Is (2.3%), Shall (2.1%), A (1.7%), Can/Can't (1.7%), Where (1.6%), There (1.5%), Who (1.4%), Come (1.0%), Look (1.0%), and Let's (1.0%). What (8.6%), That (5.3%), It (4.2%), You (3.1%), Are/Aren't (3.0%), Do/Does/Did/Don't (2.9%), I (2.9%), Is (2.3%), Shall (2.1%), A (1.7%), Can/Can't (1.7%), Where (1.6%), There (1.5%), Who (1.4%), Come (1.0%), Look (1.0%), and Let's (1.0%). Children used many of these same item-based frames in their speech, in some cases at a rate that correlated highly with their own mother's frequency of use. Children used many of these same item-based frames in their speech, in some cases at a rate that correlated highly with their own mother's frequency of use.

25. 25 Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, & Tomasello (2003) What’s.18Where’s.05 What’re.09Where’re.02 What do.05Where shall.01 What did.04 What has.03Who’s.08 What about.03Who did.01 What shall.02 What can.02Which one.02 What does.02 What hppnd.01Why don’t.01 What were.01 What kind of.01How many.01 31 frames => 80% of Wh Qs 13 frames => 65% of Wh Qs

26. 26 Early Gestures Human infants produce three main types of gestures: Human infants produce three main types of gestures: Reutilizations Reutilizations Deictic gestures Deictic gestures Symbolic gestures Symbolic gestures Gestures run the gamut from non-symbolic to symbolic – and emerge along with the first linguistic skills – is strong evidence that children’s ability to communicate symbolically is not tied specially to language but rather emanates from a more fundamental set of social-cognitive skills (Tomasello & Camaiono, 1997) Gestures run the gamut from non-symbolic to symbolic – and emerge along with the first linguistic skills – is strong evidence that children’s ability to communicate symbolically is not tied specially to language but rather emanates from a more fundamental set of social-cognitive skills (Tomasello & Camaiono, 1997)

27. 27 Early Holophrases An important issue for later language development is what parts of adult expressions children choose for their initial holophrases. An important issue for later language development is what parts of adult expressions children choose for their initial holophrases. The answer presumably lies in the specific language they are learning and the kinds of discourse in which they participate with adults, including the perceptual salience of particular words and phrases in adults’ speech (Slobin, 1985) The answer presumably lies in the specific language they are learning and the kinds of discourse in which they participate with adults, including the perceptual salience of particular words and phrases in adults’ speech (Slobin, 1985)

28. 28 Early Holophrases – language specific In English, most beginning language learners acquire a number of so-called relational words such as more, gone, up, down, on and off, presumably because adults use these words in salient ways to talk about salient event s (Blom, Tinker, and Margulis, 1993; McCune, 1992) In English, most beginning language learners acquire a number of so-called relational words such as more, gone, up, down, on and off, presumably because adults use these words in salient ways to talk about salient event s (Blom, Tinker, and Margulis, 1993; McCune, 1992) Many of these words are verb particles in adult English and so the child at some point must learn to talk about the same events with phrasal verbs such as pick up, get down, put on, and take off. Many of these words are verb particles in adult English and so the child at some point must learn to talk about the same events with phrasal verbs such as pick up, get down, put on, and take off. In Korean and Mandarin Chinese, in contrast, children learn fully adult verbs from the onset f language development because these verbs are most salient in adult speech to them (parallel to an English verb like remove for clothing: Choi & Gonpnik, 1996: Gopnik & Choi, 1995; Tardif, 1996) In Korean and Mandarin Chinese, in contrast, children learn fully adult verbs from the onset f language development because these verbs are most salient in adult speech to them (parallel to an English verb like remove for clothing: Choi & Gonpnik, 1996: Gopnik & Choi, 1995; Tardif, 1996)

29. 29 Thomas Lee’s data (2002) Mandarin-speaking children’s Sensitivity to quantifier type and thematic roles in their understanding of inverse scope for sentences. Mandarin-speaking children’s Sensitivity to quantifier type and thematic roles in their understanding of inverse scope for sentences. Suggestion Suggestion Young children (about 4yeasrs of age) are sensitive to constraints of the conceptual-intentional system on quantifier scope interpretation Young children (about 4yeasrs of age) are sensitive to constraints of the conceptual-intentional system on quantifier scope interpretation

30. 30 Phonological development Systematic age-related changes in the ability to perceive and produce the elementary sounds of language. Systematic age-related changes in the ability to perceive and produce the elementary sounds of language.

31. 31 Phonological development  Categorical phoneme perception at 1 month  Vowel discrimination at 2 months  Loss of the ability to discriminate non-native phonemes by the end of the 1st year

32. 32  6-8 weeks  cooing (vowel-like sounds with consonant produced by closure of the back of the mouth (e.g., “g” or “k”)  Later, comes to include consonants produced by closure of the front of the mouth (e.g., “m” or “b”) Phonological development

33. 33  3 to 6 months  Emergence of babbling, the production of consonant-vowel combinations like “da” and “ba”  Reduplicated babbling  Repetition of C-V combinations  9 to 10 months  More complex combinations Phonological development

34. 34 Interesting babbling facts  Cross-linguistic consistency in the timing of the onset of cooing and babbling, although some cross-linguistic differences in the sounds produced  Deaf infants babble in the first months of life Phonological development

35. 35 Learning words Evidence of word-comprehension @ 6 months (Tincoff & Juszyck, 1999). Evidence of word-comprehension @ 6 months (Tincoff & Juszyck, 1999). By 6, children understand over 5,000 different words. By 6, children understand over 5,000 different words. 20 new words a week for 5 years!!! 20 new words a week for 5 years!!!

36. 36 Learning words Words learning begins during mother-infant interaction. Words learning begins during mother-infant interaction. Best when child focussed on object, and mother labels it. Best when child focussed on object, and mother labels it. Association formed. Association formed. How does child know what the word refers to? How does child know what the word refers to?

37. 37 Learning words What are the words that infants first learn? What are the words that infants first learn? Nelson (1973)  First words name objects (65%), or actions (14%). Nelson (1973)  First words name objects (65%), or actions (14%). Do infants’ first words have the same meaning they do for adults? Do infants’ first words have the same meaning they do for adults?

38. 38 Learning words No: Often different from adult meanings. No: Often different from adult meanings. Overextensions. Overextensions. Meaning of a word overgeneralized. Meaning of a word overgeneralized. "Dog" for any animal with 4 legs. "Dog" for any animal with 4 legs. Underextensions. Underextensions. Meaning of a word too constrained. Meaning of a word too constrained. Car refers only to child’s father’s car. Car refers only to child’s father’s car.

39. 39 Learning words Most frequently used words? Goplink (1982) Most frequently used words? Goplink (1982) Longitudinal, home-observation study. Longitudinal, home-observation study. Before 24 months, children most frequently use words that provide commentary on their ongoing activity. Before 24 months, children most frequently use words that provide commentary on their ongoing activity. "Gone", "there", "oh dear", "down". "Gone", "there", "oh dear", "down".

40. 40 Early word comprehension 7-8 months olds. Typical early understood words: mummy, daddy, clock, drink, teddy (Harris, et al., 1995) 7-8 months olds. Typical early understood words: mummy, daddy, clock, drink, teddy (Harris, et al., 1995) Acquire 5 to 10 words a day from about 15 th month through the 6 th year of life (Gleitman and Cleitman, 1992) Acquire 5 to 10 words a day from about 15 th month through the 6 th year of life (Gleitman and Cleitman, 1992) Vocabulary spurt: total number of words grow fairly steadily until 12 months of age, when there will typically be a sharp increase in vocabulary Vocabulary spurt: total number of words grow fairly steadily until 12 months of age, when there will typically be a sharp increase in vocabulary Average number of words understood by boys and firls bet. 8 and 16 months of age (Fenson et al. 1994. p. 74)

41. 41 The development of grammar Telegraphic Speech Examples (Brown, 1973) Examples (Brown, 1973) (1) Agent-action: "Tommy hit" (1) Agent-action: "Tommy hit" (2) Action-object: "Give cookie" (2) Action-object: "Give cookie" (3) Possessor-possession: "My car" (3) Possessor-possession: "My car" (4) Questions: “Where daddy?” (4) Questions: “Where daddy?”

42. 42 The development of grammar 1. Telegraphic Speech Is telegraphic speech grammatical? Is telegraphic speech grammatical? Braine, 1976  Pivot grammar [Pivot word + open word] “e.g., More ________” Bloom, 1990 Bloom, 1990 No wild grammars (e.g., “Big he”) No wild grammars (e.g., “Big he”) Gross violations rare (e.g., “Daddy eat” vs “Eat daddy”) Gross violations rare (e.g., “Daddy eat” vs “Eat daddy”)

43. 43 The development of grammar 2. Inflectional morphology Rules governing the use of morphemes like inflections (e.g., -s, -ed that alter the, -ing) syntactical function of specific words Rules governing the use of morphemes like inflections (e.g., -s, -ed that alter the, -ing) syntactical function of specific words E.g., E.g., Past tense Acquired in a regular sequence Past tense Acquired in a regular sequence Not all past tenses formed through use of the [stem +“-ed”] rule (E.g., Run/Ran) Not all past tenses formed through use of the [stem +“-ed”] rule (E.g., Run/Ran) How do children learn the exceptions? How do children learn the exceptions?

44. 44 The development of grammar 3. Irregular past-tense Rules governing the use of morphemes like inflections (e.g., -s, -ed that alter the, -ing) syntactical function of specific words Developmental U-shaped curve Rules governing the use of morphemes like inflections (e.g., -s, -ed that alter the, -ing) syntactical function of specific words Developmental U-shaped curve

45. 45 The development of grammar Developmental U-shaped curve Developmental U-shaped curve 3. Irregular past-tense Time Proportion correct Developmental U-shaped curve

46. 46 The development of grammar 3. Irregular past-tense Developmental U-shaped curve Developmental U-shaped curve Irregular form learned first. “Ran” Irregular form learned first. “Ran” Then over-regularization occurs. “Runned” Then over-regularization occurs. “Runned” Finally, irregular forms reappear. “Ran” Finally, irregular forms reappear. “Ran” Why does this occur? Why does this occur?

47. 47 The development of grammar 3. Irregular past-tense Competing mechanisms Competing mechanisms Irregulars first learned through association. Irregulars first learned through association. Then, children learn the past-tense rule. Then, children learn the past-tense rule. Over-applied. Over-applied. Must re-learn the exceptions. Must re-learn the exceptions.

48. 48 Theories of Cognitive and Language Development: Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner - Comparisons and Contrasts

49. 49 Outline Brief review of Piaget’s theory Brief review of Piaget’s theory The role of culture - implications for Piaget’s theory The role of culture - implications for Piaget’s theory The theory of Vygotsky The theory of Vygotsky The theory of Bruner The theory of Bruner

50. 50 Summary of Piaget Stage theory of development - older children think qualitatively differently to younger children Stage theory of development - older children think qualitatively differently to younger children 4 stages: 4 stages: Stage 1: Sensorimoter Period (0-2 years) Stage 1: Sensorimoter Period (0-2 years) Stage 2: Pre-operational stage (2-7 years) Stage 2: Pre-operational stage (2-7 years) Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (11+ years) Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (11+ years) Development is the combined result of: Development is the combined result of: maturation of the brain and nervous system maturation of the brain and nervous system experiences that help children adapt to new environments - adaption: an organism’s ability to fit in with it’s environment. experiences that help children adapt to new environments - adaption: an organism’s ability to fit in with it’s environment.

51. 51 Alternative to Piaget 1: Lev Vygotsky 1896 - 1934 1896 - 1934 Work remained little known because it was banned by Stalin after Vygotsky’s death Work remained little known because it was banned by Stalin after Vygotsky’s death Collapse of the Soviet Union meant: Collapse of the Soviet Union meant: greater dialogue between the West and Russia greater dialogue between the West and Russia Vygotsky’s work translated into English Vygotsky’s work translated into English

52. 52 Vygotsky’s Theory: The role of culture/social interaction Sociocultural environment ALL IMPORTANT for cognitive development Sociocultural environment ALL IMPORTANT for cognitive development Different contexts create different forms of development Different contexts create different forms of development Cognitive processes (language, thought, reasoning) develop THROUGH social interaction Cognitive processes (language, thought, reasoning) develop THROUGH social interaction Development is a product of CULTURE Development is a product of CULTURE Vygotsky emphasised the role of: Vygotsky emphasised the role of: social interaction social interaction instruction instruction

53. 53 Central idea Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the difference between the level of actual development and potential development the difference between the level of actual development and potential development

54. 54 Example from Seifert, Hoffnung & Hoffnung Parent: Here are four books for you and the same for your brother Parent: Here are four books for you and the same for your brother Child: The same? (He investigates his brother’s pile of books.) No, he has more (spoken with annoyance). Child: The same? (He investigates his brother’s pile of books.) No, he has more (spoken with annoyance). Parent: No, really, they’re the same. Take another look. Parent: No, really, they’re the same. Take another look. Child: He does have more. Child: He does have more. Parent:Try laying his out in a row. Then lay yours out too. Then compare Parent:Try laying his out in a row. Then lay yours out too. Then compare Child:(Does as suggested) One two three four. One two three four. The same! (He looks satisfied) Child:(Does as suggested) One two three four. One two three four. The same! (He looks satisfied)

55. 55 Summary of the role of social interaction 1. Confirm existing knowledge 1. Confirm existing knowledge 2. Add new information 2. Add new information Instruction most effective when: Instruction most effective when: it builds on previous knowledge and skills (e.g. counting) it builds on previous knowledge and skills (e.g. counting) it provides a ‘sensible’ challenge - there’s no point pushing children beyond their potential it provides a ‘sensible’ challenge - there’s no point pushing children beyond their potential

56. 56 Vygotsky’s theory: The role of language Piaget’s view: language is just another representational system. Underdeveloped until 6 to 7 years of age Piaget’s view: language is just another representational system. Underdeveloped until 6 to 7 years of age Vygotsky’s view: language is social and communicative. Essential for cognitive development. Vygotsky’s view: language is social and communicative. Essential for cognitive development. Why did Vygotsky think this? Why did Vygotsky think this? Private speech - children talk to themselves Private speech - children talk to themselves

57. 57 Vygotsky suggested: adults give instructions to children (social speech) adults give instructions to children (social speech) children start to use parent’s instructions to direct their own behaviour (private speech) children start to use parent’s instructions to direct their own behaviour (private speech) private speech becomes internalised as thought processes (silent statements) private speech becomes internalised as thought processes (silent statements) Children use this ‘internalised’ speech to plan and organise behaviour => cognitive development Children use this ‘internalised’ speech to plan and organise behaviour => cognitive development

58. 58 Summary of Vygotsky Culture and social interaction very important in cognitive development Culture and social interaction very important in cognitive development Social interaction with knowledgeable others moves development forward - ZPD Social interaction with knowledgeable others moves development forward - ZPD Language is central to cognitive development: Language is central to cognitive development: social speech => private speech => thought social speech => private speech => thought

59. 59 Alternative to Piaget 2: Jerome Bruner Very influenced by Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s work Very influenced by Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s work Responsible for introducing Vygotsky’s work to the non-Soviet world Responsible for introducing Vygotsky’s work to the non-Soviet world

60. 60 Bruner’s Theory: Similarities with Piaget Socio-Cognitive Stage Theory: Socio-Cognitive Stage Theory: Enactive Mode Enactive Mode Iconic Mode Iconic Mode Symbolic Mode Symbolic Mode Abstract thinking develops out of concrete thinking Abstract thinking develops out of concrete thinking

61. 61 Bruner’s Theory: Similarities with Vygotsky Interpersonal communication necessary for development - socio -cognitive theory Interpersonal communication necessary for development - socio -cognitive theory Development relies on active intervention of expert others: Development relies on active intervention of expert others: SCAFFOLDING SCAFFOLDING Contingency Rule (Wood, 1980) Contingency Rule (Wood, 1980)

62. 62 Bruner’s Theory: The role of language Language is important: Language is important: without language, thought is limited without language, thought is limited language forms the basis of understanding: language forms the basis of understanding: prelinguistic thought - games and rituals prelinguistic thought - games and rituals rituals gradually replaced as adult adds information rituals gradually replaced as adult adds information rituals replaced by linguistic modes of communication rituals replaced by linguistic modes of communication

63. 63 Summary of Bruner Socio-cognitive stage theory Socio-cognitive stage theory Based on interaction with adults Based on interaction with adults Relies on adults developing reciprocal behaviour with the child Relies on adults developing reciprocal behaviour with the child

64. 64 Overall Conclusion Piaget underestimated the importance of culture and social interaction Piaget underestimated the importance of culture and social interaction Vygotsky: Vygotsky: social interaction and language necessary for cognitive development social interaction and language necessary for cognitive development Bruner: Bruner: Stage theory but emphasised role of social interaction and language Stage theory but emphasised role of social interaction and language

65. 65 Akhtar (1999) & Abbot-Smith et al. (2001) Weird Word Order English-speaking children hear utterances with “weird word order” (familiar and unfamiliar verbs) “The cow the horse is meeking/pushing” (SOV) “The cow the horse is meeking/pushing” (SOV) They are encouraged to use these same verbs with new characters engaging in these same actions They are encouraged to use these same verbs with new characters engaging in these same actions

66. 66 AKHTAR (1999) & ABBOT-SMITH et al. (2001) Percentage of mean number of utterances which were mismatches, as a function of condition and age group

67. 67 * * “look! cookie monster’s tickling big bird” “look! big bird’s tickling cookie monster” see also Naigles (1990), Fisher (2000) Golinkoff et al. 1987

68. 68 Childers & Tomasello (2001) Developmental Psychology Children at 2:6 hear several hundred transitive utterances over 4 days/sessions Either familiar or unfamiliar English verbs With either nouns only in slots or nouns & pronouns (consistent) Test is traditional nonce verb learning child hears nonce verb as intransitive or passive and must produce in transitive

69. 69 Number of children in each condition (out of 10) who produced at least one productive utterance with at least one nonce verb during testing 20% = same as in previous studies

70. 70 Development of Matrix Clauses Diessel & Tomasello, Cognitive Linguistics (2001 )