1. INTERACTION AND COMMUNICATION

2. Coordination A property of interaction among a set of agents performing some activity in a shared state. The degree of coordination is the extent to which they avoid extraneous activity –reduce resource contention –avoid livelock avoid deadlock maintain safety conditions Cooperation is coordination among nonantagonistic agents. Typically, each agent must maintain a model of the other agents each agent must develop a model of future interactions

3. Coherence and Commitments Coherence is how well a system behaves as a unit. It requires some form of organization, typically hierarchical Social commitments are a means to achieve coherence

4. Communication The primary reason for communication among agents is to coordinate activities Agents may coordinate without communication provided they have models of the others’ behavior Communication involves the dimensions of who, what, when, how (resources and protocol), and why To facilitate cooperation, agents often need to communicate their intentions, goals, results, and state

5. Communication Versus Computation Communication is generally more expensive and less reliable: –Recomputing is often faster than requesting information over a communication channel –Communication can lead to prolonged negotiation –Chains of belief and goal updates caused by communication may not terminate Communication is qualitatively superior: –Information cannot always be reconstructed locally –Communication can be avoided only when the agents are set up to share all necessary knowledge (a limiting assumption)

6. Interaction and Communication Interactions occur when agents exist and act in close proximity: –resource contention, e.g., bumping into each other Communication occurs when agents send messages to one another with a view to influencing beliefs and intentions. Implementation details are irrelevant: can occur over communication links –can occur through shared memory –can occur because of shared conventions

7. CIS Communication Protocols A CIS protocol is specified by the following fields: –sender –receiver(s) –language in the protocol –actions to be taken by the participants at various stages A CIS protocol is defined above the transport layer –not about bit patterns –not about retransmissions or routing A CIS protocol is defined at the knowledge level –involves high-level concepts, such as commitments, beliefs, intentions permissions, requests

8. A Classification of Message Classifications Syntactic –distinguish messages based on grammatical forms in natural language Semantic –distinguish messages based on a notion of intrinsic meaning prohibitive is different from directive, despite syntactic similarity Use-based –distinguish messages based on their roles in specific classes of protocols assertion is different from acknowledgment

9. Speech Act Theory Speech act theory, initially meant for natural language, views communications as actions. It considers three aspects of a message: Locution, or how it is phrased, e.g., –"It is hot here" or "Turn on the cooler" Illocution, or how it is meant by the sender or understood by the receiver, e.g., –a request to turn on the cooler or an assertion about the temperature Perlocution, or how it influences the recipient, e.g., –turns on the cooler, opens the window, ignores the speaker Illocution is the main aspect. Speech act theory classifies illocutions in various ways

10. Speech Act Theory and CIS The classifications motivate message types in CIS. However, they are typically designed for natural language –rely on NL syntax, e.g., they conflate directives and prohibitives Most research in speech act theory is about determining how locutions map to illocutions. This is trivial in CIS, since the message type is usually explicitly encoded However, speech act theory can contribute by giving a principled basis for studying communication –related to beliefs, intentions, know-how of agents –can have a formal semantics

11. Informing How can one agent tell another agent something? Send the information in a message (message passing) Write the information in a location where the other agent is likely to look (shared memory) Show or demonstrate to the other agent (teaching) Insert or program the information directly into the other agent (master --> slave; controller --> controllee; "brain surgery")

12. Querying How can one agent get information from another agent? Ask the other agent a question (message passing) Read a location where the other agent is likely to write something (shared memory) Observe the other agent (learning) Access the information directly from the other agent ("brain surgery")

13. Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics For message passing Syntax: requires a common language to represent information and queries, or languages that are intertranslatable Semantics: requires a structured vocabulary and a shared framework of knowledge-a shared ontology Pragmatics: –knowing whom to communicate with and how to find them –knowing how to initiate and maintain an exchange –knowing the effect of the communication on the recipient

14. KQML: Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language KQML Agent Application Program

15. KQML Protocols ClientServer ClientServer ClientServer Query Reply Query Handle Next Reply Subscribe Synchronous: a blocking query waits for an expected reply Asynchronous: a nonblocking subscribe results in replies Server maintains state; replies sent individually when requested

16. KQML Is a Layered Language Content of Communication Message: Logic of Communication Communication: Mechanics of Communication

17. Communication Assumptions Agents are connected by unidirectional links that carry discrete messages Links have nonzero transport delay Agent knows link of received message Agent controls link for sending Messages to a single destination arrive in the order they were sent Message delivery is reliable

18. KQML Semantics Each agent manages a virtual knowledge base (VKB) Statements in a VKB can be classified into beliefs and goals Beliefs encode information an agent has about itself and its environment Goals encode states of an agent’s environment that it will act to achieve Agents use KQML to communicate about the contents of their own and others’ VKBs

19. Reserved Performative Types 1. Query performatives: evaluate, ask-if, ask-one, ask-all 2. Multiresponse performatives: stream-in, stream-all 3. Response performatives: reply, sorry 4. Generic informational performatives: tell, achieve, cancel, untell, unachieve 5. Generator performatives: standby, ready, next, rest, discard 6. Capability-definition performatives: advertise, subscribe, monitor, import, export 7. Networking performatives: register, unregister, forward, broadcast, route, recommend

20. Informatives tell :content :language :ontology :in-reply-to :force :sender :receiver deny :content :language KQML :ontology :in-reply-to :sender :receiver untell :content :language :ontology :in-reply-to :force :sender :receiver

21. Database Informatives insert :content :language :ontology :reply-with :in-reply-to :force :sender :receiver delete :content :language KQML :ontology :reply-with :in-reply-to :sender :receiver

22. Query Performatives evaluate :content :language :ontology :reply-with :sender :receiver reply :content :language KQML :ontology :in-reply-to :force :sender :receiver ask-one :content :aspect :language :ontology :reply-with :sender :receiver

23. Semantics of Communications What if the agents have different terms for the same concept? same term for different concepts? different class systems or schemas? differences in depth and breadth of coverage?

24. Common Ontologies A shared representation is essential to successful communication and coordination For humans, this is provided by the physical, biological, and social world For computational agents, this is provided by a common ontology: –terms used in communication can be coherently defined –interaction policies can be shared Current efforts are –Cyc –DARPA ontology sharing project –Ontology Base (ISI) –WordNet (Princeton)