2. Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood Chapter 11

3. Children between ages 2 1 / 2 -5 experience: Dramatically expanding world More independence and self-control Begin to explore adult roles More organized behaviors More advanced peer relationships

4. Moving Toward Greater Self-Reliance Greater self-reliance is supported by several capacities of 3- & 4-year-olds: motor skills such as climbing & manipulating objects language & other cognitive abilities that enable them to think, plan, solve problems growing ability to tolerate delays & frustrations emerging capacity for imagination & fantasy play Initiative: A child’s sense of independent purposefulness (Erikson). Initiative: A child’s sense of independent purposefulness (Erikson). Self-efficacy: The sense of being able to do things effectively on one’s own (Bandura). Self-efficacy: The sense of being able to do things effectively on one’s own (Bandura).

5. Self-Control & Self-Regulation Effortful control: Ability to suppress some strong behavior, such as: slowing down when running talking more quietly Self-regulation includes: effortful control ability to direct their own activities adjusting behavior & emotional expression to fit the situation

6. The Developing Self Changes in Self-Understanding more comprehensive sense of self observe their own behavior have trouble understanding they’re the same person when they feel different Self-constancy: A sense that the self endures despite temporary disruptions in relationships. Self-constancy: A sense that the self endures despite temporary disruptions in relationships. Self-Esteem: positive thoughts and feelings about the self

7. Gender and the Self Gender identity: Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female. Sex-typed behavior: actions that conform to cultural expectations about what is appropriate for boys and girls Girls play with dolls; boys play with trucks Gender-roles: Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for males or for females Gender constancy: gender remains the same despite superficial transformations (ex: hair, dress)

8. Gender and the Self 2 yrs: know boy vs. girl; gendered toy preferences 3-4 yrs: sex-typed behavior increases, categorize objects and activities as ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ 4-5 yrs: acquire concrete aspects of gender roles (occupations, activities), gender segregation Parents and peers often reinforce gender- appropriate play; media influences Mothers are more accepting of “cross-gender” play

9. Influences on Gender Identity Biological Many or most behavioral differences between the sexes can be traced to biological differences Psychoanalytic Identification: occurs when child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of same-sex parent Cognitive Children develop cognitive schemas for gender and adopt behaviors consistent with their gender Socialization gender identity is result of complex array of interacting personal and social influences (family, peers, media)

10. Identification with Parents Identification: The process by which children strive to be like their parents in thoughts and feelings as well as in actions.

11. Emotional Development in Early Childhood Rapid understanding and use of complex emotional words (ex: jealousy) Understand that emotions can be affected by expectations, and not just actions Learning how to infer others’ feelings based on situational cues and visible expressions of emotions Children with conflicting parents often can pick up on the tense emotions based on situational cues, even if one or both parents is smiling and says that nothing is wrong

12. Emotional Development Emotional regulation: Capacity to control and direct emotional expression, to maintain organized behavior in the face of strong emotions, and to be guided by emotional experiences Delay of gratification: ability to forgo an immediate reward in order to have a better reward later

13. Developing Prosocial Behavior Empathy: experiencing the emotions of another person Altruism: acting unselfishly to aid someone else Empathy underlies altruism Parents can help: talk about others’ feelings and experiences, set expectations for kindness

14. Internalizing Standards Once the child internalizes standards, he or she will comply with parents’ prohibitions even when parents aren’t present. By age 4, children view moral transgressions (e.g., hitting or not sharing) as more serious than conventional transgressions (e.g., eating ice cream with your fingers).

15. Function of Play A setting in which skills can be tried out and roles and feelings can be explored Types Functional Constructive Pretend Formal games with rules

16. Role Playing Role playing provides opportunities to: try out social roles try out cultural values play as mommies, daddies, doctors, police officers, or robbers act out aspirations as well as fears

17. The Importance of Peer Relationships The peer group helps children learn about concepts of fairness, reciprocity, and cooperation. Learn to manage interpersonal aggression Cultural norms and values Greatly affects self- concept and future interactions.

18. Relationships with Other Children Siblings--or Their Absence Sibling rivalry is not the main pattern between brothers and sisters early in life The quality of sibling relationships often sets the stage for later relationships An only child has advantages and disadvantages

19. Developmental Changes in Aggression During late preschool and early elementary school years, overall level of physical aggressiveness declines because of a drop in instrumental aggression. Instrumental aggression: Aggression used as a means to get something. Relational aggression: Aggression that uses social relations as the source of power. Hostile aggression: Aggression aimed solely at hurting someone else.

20. Aggression and Fearfulness Sources of Aggression Biology or temperament Early experiences in childhood Parent-child relationships Triggers of Aggression Exposure to violence Television and media influences Culture strongly influences aggression

21. Preschool children and media

22. The Parents’ Role in Early Childhood Development Important Aspects of Parenting in the Preschool Period: Consistency in the parents' approach to discipline Agreement between the parents concerning child- rearing practices Gradually giving the child more responsibility, while still being available to help if needed Displaying clear roles and values in their own action Showing the flexible self-control they hope to promote in their child

23. Authoritative parenting parents are nurturant, responsive, and supportive, yet set firm limits for their children. OUTCOME: children are energetic, emotionally responsive, self-reliant Permissive parenting parents fail to set firm limits or to require appropriately mature behavior of their children. OUTCOME: children are impulsive, lack self-control, lack self-reliance Authoritarian parenting parents are unresponsive, inflexible, and harsh in controlling behavior. OUTCOME: children are apprehensive, frustrated, passive; show hostility

24. Guiding Young Children’s Behavior Recommendations from the STEP 1. Understand child development 2. Understand child behavior/misbehavior 3. Build self-esteem 4. Communicate (e.g., use I-messages) 5. Help children cooperate 6. practice effective discipline* 7. nurture emotional and social development

25. Reason for MisbehaviorResponse AttentionIgnore the behavior; reward positive behavior with attention PowerWithdraw from conflict by refusing to fight or become angry; let child experience consequences of misbehavior RevengeBuilt trust and mutual respect Display of inadequacyEncourage; focus on the child’s strengths

26. Encouraging Cooperation Make the problem clear to the child(ren). Use brainstorming to find possible simple solutions (alternatives) Consider the suggested solutions. Consider the consequences. Choose a solution. Make a commitment to obtain a solution and set a time to evaluate it.

27. Effective Discipline: the goal of discipline is self-discipline Distract Remove the child from the situation Structure the environment to prevent misbehavior Involve children in choices and consequences Control the situation, not the child Reinforce positive behavior