2. IX. English Idioms 英语习语

3. 1. Definition
An idiom is a set expression made of two or more words (an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use). In other words, an idiom is a fixed group of words or a single word, or even a sentence, with a special meaning that can not be guessed from its structure.

4. Idioms consist of short phrases and short sentences, such as set phrases, proverbs, sayings, quotations, maxims, colloquialisms, slang expressions, etc. 1). Set phrases(成语): after one’s heart, call a spade a spade; 2).Proverbs/Sayings/Maxims(谚语/格言/箴言): Enough is as good as a feast; ; 3). Colloquialisms(俗语/口语体): keep hands in pockets; have another fish to fry; 4). Slang expressions(俚语): to pay the debt of nature.

5. 2. Characteristics
1). Semantic unity(语义的统一性): a). An idiom functions as a single word though it may consist of two or even more words, i.e. the idiom functions as a word, the meanings of its components having been lost. e.g. till the cow comes home, like a breeze. b). The relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom is illogical—semantically inexplicable. e.g. wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve.

6. 2). Structural stability(结构的稳定性): The structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable. a). the components of an idiom can’t be replaced. e.g. in a brown study, lip service. b). The word order of an idiom can’t be inverted or changed. e.g. by twos and threes, tit for tat. c). The components of an idiom can’t be deleted or added, not even the article. E.g. with child/with a child, take the chair, out of the question. D). Lots of idioms can’t be analyzed grammatically. e.g. diamond cut diamond, as sure as eggs is eggs.

7. 1). Idioms Nominal in Nature (用作名词的习语)
3. Classification of Idioms
Idioms can be classified into five groups based on grammatical functions
1). Idioms Nominal in Nature (用作名词的习语)
Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences.
brain trust [n+n]; white elephant [a+n]; flesh and blood[n+n]; an apple of discord [n+prep+n]; fly in the ointment [n+prep+n]

8. 2). Idioms Adjectival in Nature(用作形容词的习语)
Idioms of this category function as adjectives but the components are not necessarily adjectives.
cut and dried [a+a]; wide of the mark [a+prep+n]; beyond the pale [prep+n]; up in the air [adv+prep+n]
3). Idioms Verbal in Nature (用作动词的习语)
Idioms of such a group can be subdivided into phrasal verbs and other verb phrases.
(1). Phrasal verbs are idioms which are composed of a verb plus a prep and/or a particle.

9. look into [vi+prep]; put off, get away with; put down to.
(2). Other verb phrases
make it [v+n]; follow one’s nose [v+poss+n]; fall flat; give somebody the bag; sing a different tune [v+a+n]; chop and change [v+conj+v]; come back to earth; bite the hand that feeds one.
4). Idioms Adverbial in Nature (用作副词的习语)
Idioms of this category are often used as adverbs.
tooth and nail [n+n]; in nothing flat prep+n+a]; in clover [prep+n].

10. 5). Sentence Idioms
All idioms of this category are complete sentences, mainly proverbs and sayings, including colloquialisms and catchphrases. In terms of their structures, English proverbs have the following groups:
(1). the elliptical sentence:
a). Once bitten, twice sly.
b). First come, first served.
c). Out of sight, out of mind.

11. (2). The simple sentence:
a). Every dog has his day.
b). A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
c). A stitch in time saves nine.
(3). The imperative sentence:
a). Live and learn.
b). Give a dog a bad (ill) name and hang him.
c). Let sleeping dogs lie.
d). Never do things by halves.

12. (4). the compound sentence:
a). You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink.
b). It never rains but it pours.
c). You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours.
(5). The complex sentence:
a). All that glitters is not gold.
b). Make hay while the sun shines.
c). If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing it well.

13. 4. Use of Idioms
1). Stylistic Features
(1). Colloquialisms
a). hang in (not to give up)
Hang in there, old buddy; the worst is yet to come.
b). big wheel (an influential or important person)
Uncle John is a big wheel in Washington, maybe he can help you with your problem.
c). make waves (create a disturbance, a sensation)
Mr. Black is the wrong person for the job; he is always trying to make waves.

14. (2). Slang
a). cancer stick (cigarette)
b). hit the sack (AmE go to bed)
I’m sleepy; let’s hit the sack.
c). dish the dirt (gossip or spread rumor about others)
Stop dishing the dirt, Sally, it’s really unbecoming.
d). feel no pain (be drunk)

15. After a few drinks, the man felt no pain and began to act foolishly.
e). in the soup (in serious trouble; in confusion)
When his wife overdrew their bank account without telling him, Mr. Green suddenly found himself really in the soup.
(3). Literary expressions
a). come to pass (take place, happen)
Strange things come to pass in troubled times.
b). be it that (even though)

16. And be it that indeed that I have erred, mine error remaineth with myself.
c). in the wake of (right after; following)
Famine followed in the wake of war.
d). of note (notable, well-known)
He is a novelist of note in that country.
2). Rhetorical Features
(1). Phonetic manipulation
a). Alliteration
chop and change
might and main

17. rough and ready
part and parcel
sum and substance
b). Rhyme
wear and tear
toil and moil
fair and square
A little pot is soon hot.
There is many a slip between the cup and the lip.
 (2). Lexical manipulation
a). Reiteration (duplication of synonyms)
scream and shout, pick and choose, hustle and bustle, odds and ends, ways and means, by leaps and bounds

18. b). Repetition
by and by, neck and neck, face to face, year in year out, lots and lots, all in all
c). Juxtaposition (of antonyms)
here and there, rain or shine, weal and woe, high and low, play fast and loose, move heaven and earth, hit or miss
3). Figures of Speech
(1). Similes
sleep like a log, eat like a horse, like a rat in hole.

19. (2). Metaphor
grey mare, a snake in the grass, bed of dust, a wet blanket, sit on the fence, cut the ground from under sb, fall from grace
(3). Metonymy—idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it.
in the cradle, live by one’s pen, make (up) a purse
(4). Synecdoche—idioms in which a part is substituted for the whole and vice versa.

20. (5). Personification
The pot calls the cattle black.
Failure is the mother of success.
(6). Euphemism
the call of nature, sleep around, powder one’s nose, perfumed talk, a big cheese
4). Variations of Idioms
Changes in the constituents of idioms may be conducted by virtue of: addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting, dismembering, etc.

21. (1). Replacement
In some idioms, a component may be replaced by a word of the same part of speech, resulting in synonymous or antonymous idioms.
a). Verb: make [cut] a figure, make [pull off] a great coup.
b). Noun: down in the business [mouth
c). Adjectives: in good [high, fine, full] feather; take long [short] views.
d). Adverb or preposition: drop in [over, by]; give a hand to [for].
e). Article, pronoun, numeral: a flea in one’s [the] ear; talk thirteen [nineteen] to the dozen; come off one’s [the] high horse

22. (2). Addition or deletion
behind [the] bars; for good [and all]; thank one’s [lucky] stars; from [the bottom] of one’s heart.
(3). Position-shifting
day and night, young and old, pin back somebody’s ears
(4). Shortening
a). a rolling stone: “I’m a bit of a rolling stone down the avenues of medicine.”
b). an ill wind: “But for whom is any weather ‘worse’? Sunbathers? Skiers? Tomatoes? Ducks? Obviously any weather is good for some people and purposes, so why label it? It’s an ill wind.”

23. (5). Dismembering (breaking up the idioms into pieces)
a). Generally speaking, he is a misfit, a round peg in the squarest of holes. (a square peg in the round hole)
b). Conway would have preferred to talk in Chinese, but so far he had not let it be known that he spoke any Eastern tongue; he felt it might be a useful card up his sleeve. (have a card up one’s sleeve)

24. Drills: 1. Match the idioms on the left with the definitions on the right.
a. hold one’s tongue ). have no will power or courage
b. behind closed doors ). be silent, not to speak
c. a slap in the face ). insult
d. a bitter pill to swallow ). place all one’s money on one risk
e. have no backbone ). discourage
f. rule of thumb ). something unpleasant that must
be endured
g. throw cold water on ). cause trouble to
h. put all one’s eggs in one basket 8). based on experience or
practice
i. play havoc with ). privately
j. as good as one’s word ). carrying one one’s promises