1. POLS 373 Foundations of Comparative Politics Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics January 28, 2008 Timothy C. Lim California State University, Los Angeles tclim@calstatela.edu

2. 2 Theories about Violent Crime in the U.S. To start off our discussion of theory, we will begin with an exercise … Consider the following 4 “theories” (or arguments) about violent crime in the United States HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

3. 3 “Theories” about Violent Crime: #1 A major source of violent crime lies in predictable human behavior. In places where the risks of getting caught are minimal where the potential rewards are high, individuals are likely to commit more crimes in general. This is especially true in poorer communities, where people may have limited access to jobs, education and skills training. Violent crime specifically is more likely (1) when the use of violence is a particularly efficient and/or necessary “tool,” and (2) where the use of violence to achieve one’s ends entails relatively limited risk compared to the alternatives HYOR T E

4. 4 “Theories” about Violent Crime: #2 Capitalism causes violence. Not directly, but through a unrelenting process that divides societies into the “haves” and “have-nots” …. In this way, capitalism alienates people from each other, their families, and their communities, thus setting the stage for anti-social, increasingly violent behavior among ordinary people, against ordinary people. Violence is a response to the “soulessness” and hopelessness engendered by an inherently exploitative economic system. HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E Continued on next slide

5. 5 “Theories” about Violent Crime: #2 Of course, violence is not unique to capitalism, nor are all capitalist societies equally violent. Where the most destructive, alienating, and exploitative aspects of the capitalist process are mitigated, intra-societal violence is lessened. But where the forces of capitalism are unleashed and where vast segments of society are left unprotected, violence thrives. This is why the United States is the most violent advanced capitalist society on earth. HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

6. 6 “Theories” about Violent Crime: #3 People and societies are responsible for their own actions and decisions, but they do not exist or act in a social vacuum. Their behavior, in other words, is profoundly influenced by the environment in which they live. This environment, which we might call “culture,” may encourage certain practices and values that encourage criminally violent behavior among certain groups of people. HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E Example: Street gangs develop their own cultures, which often glorify and sanction violence Continued on next slide

7. 7 “Theories” about Violent Crime: #3 More specifically, in some places, a “culture of violence” has been created. In this “culture of violence,” members of the community learn to resolve or address problems and conflicts primarily through the use violence. Violence, in other words, becomes a dominant and largely accepted norm within the community. Importantly, cultures of violence are not “born,” but created. Over time, however, violent cultural practices become deeply embedded within a community, taking on a life of their own. When this happens, the culture itself becomes an explanationfor behavior. HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E Military forces consciously create a culture based, to a large extent, on violence

8. 8 Summary of “Theories” on Violent Crime Theory #1: A major source of violent crime lies in predictable human behavior Theory #2: #2: Capitalism causes violence Theory #3: #3: Crime reflects a “culture of violence” HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E 1 1 2 2 3 3

9. 9 Theory in Comparative Politics Key points: EEEEach of the three “theories” represent different research traditions common in comparative politics EEEEach of the three “theories” are marked by significant, but not necessarily obvious, differences One important difference relates to a level of analysis HYOR T E micro-level meso-level macro-level

10. 10 Theory in Comparative Politics: Levels of Analysis Micro-level Looks for an explanation of behavior within or at the level of the individual Example: A psychological explanation of Charles Manson’s violent, sociopathic personality; psychological explanations assume that the answer to certain types of violence can only be found by looking inside the minds of individuals HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

11. 11 Theory in Comparative Politics: Levels of Analysis Meso-level Looks beyond the individual to broader social conditions; meso-level explanations can focus on community norms or culture more generally; institutional arrangements, historical experiences; state-level actions; and so on Example: Some cultures encourage, reward, and even compel members of the culture to behave violently; others, such as the Amish community, teach their members to abhor all forms of violence (only only one Amish man has ever been convicted of murdermurder) HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E The Amish: A culture of peace and non-violence?

12. 12 Theory in Comparative Politics: Levels of Analysis Macro-level Looks at the “biggest” forces that shape, not just individual behavior, but whole societies; assumes that all human action is both constrained and enabled by factors beyond our individual control: Marxists, for example, believe that capitalism is an all-encompassing social system that necessarily, unavoidably, and profoundly shapes our behavior HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E To Marxists, the global system of neo-liberal capitalism is an overarching force shaping the entire world

13. 13 Theory in Comparative Politics Another way to classify the statements is in terms of the three research traditions discussed in chapter three: Fits into a ___________________ framework Fits into a ___________________ framework Fits into a ___________________ framework cultural rational choice structural HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E THEORY 1 THEORY 2 THEORY 3

14. 14 Theory in Comparative Politics Which approach best reflects your current understanding of violent crime? In other words, are you a rationalist, a structuralist, or a culturalist? Which “hat” do you already wear? HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E question

15. 15 Theory in Comparative Politics Some More Questions What is theory? What is meant by the word “theorizing”? Is it only academics, such as Einstein, who theorize? HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

16. 16 Theory in Comparative Politics When we theorize, we are … making judgments about what it and is not relevant or important in terms of explaining some significant economic, social or political phenomenon `identifying a specific level of analysis and making assumptions about power, structure, and agency connecting certain facts with specific outcomes HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E 1 1 2 2 3 3

17. 17 Theory in Comparative Politics A basic definition of theory A is a kind of simplifyi ng device that allows you to decide which facts matter and which do not HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

18. 18 Theory in Comparative Politics Theory as a simplifying device: An example Theory = (Conceptual) Filter HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

19. 19 Another Useful Metaphor: Theory as a Photographic Lens HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

20. 20 Theory as a Photographic Lens Basic lesson: Different “lenses” (a.k.a., theories) serve different purposes; this may help explain why, in the social sciences, there are multiple, often competing theories HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

21. 21 Multiple Theories The existence of multiple theories raises some questions … Are all theories equally valid? Are different theories—even personal ones—all equally good? Short Answer: NO! HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E There are good, bad, and just plain ugly theories

22. 22 Some Problems in “Bad Theories” and Theorizing Many people theorize in an extremely superficial or arbitrary manner; jump to conclusions; ignore or dismiss “facts” that don’t fit into their understanding of the world; fail to acknowledge logical contradictions; confuse “observation” or correlation with causation; never (ever) think about the assumptions upon which their views are based; or regard their theories or theorizing about the world as self-evidently true HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E One might argue that George W. Bush uses bad theory

23. 23 Some Problems in “Bad Theories” and Theorizing The basic problem can be summed up simply: Many people operate on a modified version of Descartes’ famous dictum (“I think therefore I am”), by asserting … I think, therefore I’m right HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

24. 24 An Amended Definition of Theory Theory is a simplified representation of reality and a framework within which facts are not only selected, but also interpreted, organized, and fit together so that they create a coherent whole HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E

25. 25 Key Points in Amended Definition Theory necessarily simplifies reality, but is not separate from reality Theory helps us to determine what facts are important, meaningful, relevant Theory guides our interpretation of the “facts” (What do the facts “mean”?) Theory tells us how to organize the facts--how do different facts relate to one another? Which are primary? Theory allows us to develop “whole” arguments HYOR T An Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics E