1. A testing scenario for probabilistic automata Marielle Stoelinga UC Santa Cruz Frits Vaandrager University of Nijmegen

2. Characterization of process equivalences process equivalences –bisimulation / ready trace /... equivalence –algebraical / logical / denotional /... definitions are these reasonable ? –justify equivalence via testing scenarios / button pushing experiments –comparative concurrency theory –De Nicola & Hennesy [DH86], Milner [Mil80], van Glabbeek [vGl01] testing scenarios: -define intuitive notion of observation, fundamental -processes that cannot be distinguished by observation ce ´ : P ´ Q iff Obs(P) = Obs(Q) - ´ does not distinguish too much/too little P Q ´ ??

3. Characterization of process equivalences process equivalences –bisimulation / ready trace /... equivalence –algebraical / logical / denotional /... definitions are these reasonable ? –justify equivalence via testing scenarios / button pushing experiments testing scenarios: -define intuitive notion of observation, fundamental -processes that cannot be distinguished by observation are deemed to be equivalent -justify process equivalence ´ : P ´ Q iff Obs(P) = Obs(Q) - ´ does not distinguish too much/too little P Q ´ ??

4. Main results testing scenarios in non-probabilistic case –trace equivalence –bisimulation –... we define –observations of a probabilistic automaton (PA) –observe probabilities through statistical methods (hypothesis testing) characterization result –Obs(P) = Obs(Q) iff trd(P) = trd(Q), P, Q finitely branching trd(P) extension of traces for PAs. [Segala] justifies trace distr equivalence in terms of observations

5. Model for testing scenarios a machine M –a black box – inside: process described by LTS P display –showing current action buttons –for user interaction display machine buttons

6. Model for testing scenarios a an observer –records what s/he sees (over time) + buttons define Obs M (P): –observations of P = what observer records, if LTS P is inside M display machine buttons

7. Model for testing scenarios a processes (LTSs) with same observations are deemed to be equivalent characterization results: Obs M (P) = Obs M (Q) iff P ´ Q ´ does not distinguish too much/too little display machine buttons

8. Trace Machine (TM) a no buttons for interaction display shows current action

9. Trace Machine (TM) a no buttons for interaction display shows current action with P inside M, an observer sees one of , a, ab, ac Obs TM (P) = traces of P testing scenario justifies trace (language) equivalence bc a P

10. Trace Machine (TM) a no distinguishing observation between bc aa a bc

11. Trace Distribution Machine (TDM) reset button: start over repeat experiments each experiment yields trace of same length k (wlog) observe frequencies of traces d reset ht 1/2 dl P

12. Trace Distribution Machine (TDM) 100 exps, length 2 frequencies - hd tl tl hd tl.... hd hd48 tl 52 other 0(hh,dh,hl,...) d reset ht 1/2 dl P

13. Trace Distribution Machine (TDM) with many experiments: #hd ¼ # tl 100 exps, length 2 frequencies - hd tl tl hd tl.... hd hd48 tl 52 other 0 d reset ht 1/2 dl P not every seq of experiments is an observation

14. Trace Distribution Machine (TDM) with many experiments: #hd ¼ # tl 100 exps, length 2 frequencies - hd tl tl hd tl... hd hd48 tl 52 other 0 - hd hd hd hd.... hdhd 100 tl 0 other 0 d reset ht 1/2 dl P 2 Obs(P) freq likely 2 Obs(P) freq unlikely /

15. Trace Distribution Machine (TDM) nondeterministic choice choose one transition probabilistically in large outcomes: 1/2 #c + 1/3 #d ¼ #b use statistics: –b,b,b,....b 2 Obs(P) freqs likely –b,d,c,b,b,b,c,... 2 Obs(P) freqs unlikey d reset b d 1/3 3/4 cb 2/31/4 P /

16. Observations TDM Obs TDM (P) = {  |  is likely to be produced by P} a reset ht 1/2 dl P

17. Observations TDM perform m experiments (m resets) each experiment yields trace of length k (wlog) sequence  2 (Act k ) m Obs(P) = {  2 (Act k ) m |  is likely to be produced by P, k,m 2 N} what is likely? use hypothesis testing a reset ht 1/2 dl P

18. Which frequencies are likely? I have a sequence  = h,t,t,t,h,t,... 2 {h,t} 100 I claim: generated  with automaton P. do you believe me –if  contains 15 h’s? –if  contains 42 h’s? ht 1/2

19. Which frequencies are likely? I have a sequence  = h,t,t,t,h,t,... 2 {h,t} 100 I claim: generated  with automaton P. do you believe me –if  contains 15 h’s? –if  contains 42 h’s? use hypothesis testing: fix confidence level  2 (0,1) H 0 null hypothesis =  is generated by P ht 1/2 0501004060 K: accept H 0 reject H 0 #h

20. Which frequencies are likely? I have a sequence  = h,t,t,t,h,t,... 2 {h,t} 100 I claim: generated  with automaton P. do you believe me –if  contains 15 h’s? –if  contains 42 h’s? use hypothesis testing: fix confidence level  2 (0,1) H 0 null hypothesis =  is generated by P P H0 [K] > 1-  : prob on false rejection ·  P : H0 [K] minimal : prob on false acceptance minimal ht 1/2 0501004060 K: accept H 0 reject H 0 #h

21. Which frequencies are likely? I have a sequence  = h,t,t,t,h,t,... 2 {h,t} 100 I claim: generated  with automaton P. do you believe me –if  contains 15 h’s? NO –if  contains 42 h’s? YES use hypothesis testing: fix confidence level  2 (0,1) H 0 null hypothesis =  is generated by P P H0 [K] > 1-  : prob on false rejection ·  P : H0 [K] minimal : prob on false acceptance minimal ht 1/2 0501004060 K: accept H 0 reject H 0 #h

22. Example: Observations for  =0.05 Obs(P) = {  2 (Act k ) m |  is likely to be produced by P, k,m 2 N } for k = 1 and m = 100  2 (Act) 100 is an observation iff 40 · freq  (hd) · 60 ht 1/2 0 50 100 40 K 1,100 60

23. Example: Observations for  =0.05 Obs(P) = {  2 (Act k ) m |  is likely to be produced by P, k,m 2 N } for k = 1 and m = 100  2 (Act) 100 is an observation iff 40 · freq  (hd) · 60 for k = 1 and m = 200  2 (Act) 200 is an observation iff 88 · freq  (h) · 112 etc.... ht 1/2 0 100 200 88 K 1,200 112

24. Example: Observations for  =0.05 Obs(P) = {  2 (Act k ) m |  is likely to be produced by P, k,m 2 N } for k = 1 and m = 100,  2 (Act) 100 is an observation iff 40 · freq  (hd) · 60 for k = 1 and m = 200  2 (Act) 200 is an observation iff 88 · freq  (h) · 112 etc.... ht 1/2 0 100 200 88 K 1,200 112 exp freq E P allowed deviation  ( = 12) 0

25. With nondeterminism  = b,c,c,d,b,d,....,c 2 Obs(P) ?? a a 1/3 3/4 b c 1/42/3 P

26. With nondeterminism  = b,c,c,d,b,d,....,c 2 Obs(P) ?? fix schedulers: p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100 –p i = P[take left trans in experiment i] –1 - p i = P[take right trans in experiment i] H 0 :  is generated by P under p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100 critical section K p1,...,p100 a a 1/3 3/4 b c 1/42/3 P

27. With nondeterminism  = b,c,c,d,b,d,....,c 2 Obs(P) ?? fix schedulers: p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100 –p i = P[take left trans in experiment i] –1 - p i = P[take right trans in experiment i] H 0 :  is generated by P under p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100 critical section K p1,...,p100 a a 1/3 3/4 b c 1/42/3 P  2 Obs(P) iff  2 K p1,...,p100 for some p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100

28. With nondeterminism fix p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100 compute P p1, p2, p3... p100 [  ] for every  –e.g p i = ½, P p1, p2, p3... p100 [c,c...c] = (½*2/3) 100 expected frequency E p1,...,p100 for –c =  i 2/3 p i –d =  i 3/4 (1-p i ) –b =  i 1/3 p i + ¼ (1-p i ) as before: critical section K p1,...,p100 b b 1/3 p i ¾(1-p i )c d ¼(1-p i ) 2/3p i

29. With nondeterminism fix p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100 –compute P p1, p2, p3... p100 [  ] for every  expected frequency E as before: critical section K p1,...,p100 –H 0 :  is generated by P under p 1, p 2, p 3... p 100 –allow observations to deviate <  from E –K p1,...,p100 – = P p1, p2, p3... p100 [sphere  (E)] –with  minimal with P p1, p2, p3... p100 [sphere  (E)] >  b b 1/3 3/4c d 1/42/3

30. Example: Observations Observations for k =1, m = 100.  contains b,c only with 54 · freq  (c) · 78 –take p i = 1 for all i  contains b,d only with 62 · freq  (d) · 88 –take p i = 0 for all i b b 1/3 3/4c d 1/42/3

31. Example: Observations Observations for k =1, m = 100.  contains a,b only and 54 · freq  (c) · 78 –take p i = 1 for all i  contains b,d only and 62 · freq  (d) · 88 –take p i = 0 for all i Observations for k=1, m = 200 61 · freq  (c) · 71 and 70 · freq  (d) · 80 – p i = ½ for all i (exp 66 c’s; 74 d’s; 60 b’s) –(these are not all observations; they form a sphere) b b 1/3 3/4c d 1/42/3

32. Main result TDM characterizes trace distr equivalence Obs TDM (P) = Obs TDM (Q) iff trd(P) = trd(Q) if P, Q are finitely branching justifies trace distribution equivalence in an observational way

34. Main result TDM characterizes trace distr equiv ´ TD Obs TDM (P) = Obs TDM (Q) iff trd(P) = trd(Q) “only if” part is immediate, “if”-part is hard. –find a distinguishing observation if P, Q have different trace distributions. IAP for P. Q fin branching –P, Q have the same infinite trace distrs iff P, Q have the same finite trace distrs the set of trace distrs is a polyhedron Law of large numbers –for random vars with different distributions

35. Observations  =0.05 Obs(P) = {  2 (Act k ) m |  likely to be produced by P} Obs(P) = {  2 (Act k ) m | freq_  in K} for k = 1 and m = 100,  2 (Act) 100 is an observation iff 40 · freq  (hd) · 60 ht 1/2 0501004060 K

36. Nondeterministic case \sigma = \beta_1,...\beta_m fixed adversaries take in expect_freq for \gamma\in Act^k, freq_\gamma(\beta) freq \in \ we consider only frequency of traces in an outcome ht 1/2

37. a! b! a? b? bc a

38. a! b! a?

39. Trace Distribution Machine (TDM) reset button: start over repeat experiments: yields sequence of traces in large outcomes: #hd ¼ # tl use statistics: –hd,hd,hd,...,hd 2 Obs(P) too unlikely –hd,tl,tl,hd,...tl,hd 2 Obs(P) likely d reset / ht 1/2 dl

40. ht 0501004060 exp freq

41. Process equivalences Q P

42. Testing scenario’s a a black box with display and buttons inside: process described by LTS P display: current action what do we see (over time)? Obs M (P) P, Q are deemed equivalent iff Obs M (Q) = Obs M (Q) desired characterization: display machine buttons

43. Observations  =0.05 Obs(P) = {  2 (Act k ) m |  is likely to be produced by P} for k = 1 and m = 99, expectation E = (33,33,33) Obs(P) = {  2 (Act) 99 | |  – E | < 15} ht 1/3