1. ECE 331 – Digital System Design State Reduction and State Assignment (Lecture #22) The slides included herein were taken from the materials accompanying Fundamentals of Logic Design, 6 th Edition, by Roth and Kinney, and were used with permission from Cengage Learning.

2. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design2 Material to be covered … Chapter 15: Sections 1 – 9

3. ECE 331 - Digital Systems Design3 Sequential Circuit Design Understand specifications Draw state graph (to describe state machine behavior) Construct state table (from state graph) Perform state minimization (if necessary) Encode states (aka. state assignment) Create state-assigned table Select type of Flip-Flop to use Determine Flip-Flop input equations and FSM output equation(s) Draw logic diagram

4. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design4 Elimination of Redundant States

5. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design5 Elimination of Redundant States In Unit 14, we were careful to avoid introducing unnecessary states when setting up a state graph or table. We will now approach the problem of deriving the state graph somewhat differently. When first setting up the state table, we will not be overly concerned with inclusion of extra states, and when the table is complete, we will eliminate any redundant states. We will rework Example 1 in Section 14.3 using excess states, and then eliminate the excess states.

6. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design6 Example: Sequence Detector A sequential circuit has one input (X) and one output (Z). The circuit examines groups of four consecutive inputs and produces an output Z = 1 if the input sequence 0101 or 1001 occurs. The circuit resets after every four inputs. Find a Mealy state graph. A typical input and output sequence is:

7. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design7 Example: Sequence Detector State Table

8. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design8 Example: Sequence Detector Since states H and I have the same next states and the same outputs, there is no way of telling states H and I apart. We can replace I with H.

9. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design9 Example: Sequence Detector Reduced State Table

10. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design10 Example: Sequence Detector Reduced State Graph

11. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design11 Equivalent States Theorem 15.1: Two states p and q of a sequential circuit are equivalent iff for every single input X, the outputs are the same and the next states are equivalent, that is, where (p, X) is the output given the present state p and input X, and (p, X) is the next state given the present state p and input X. Note that the next states do not have to be equal, just equivalent.

12. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design12 Determination of Equivalent States a ≡ b iff d ≡ f andc ≡ h a ≡ d iff a ≡ d andc ≡ e

13. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design13 Implication Chart

14. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design14 Implication Chart After first pass.

15. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design15 Implication Chart After second pass.

16. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design16 Determination of Equivalent States d is replaced with a e is replaced with c d and e are removed

17. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design17 Implication Table Method The implication table method of determining state equivalence can be summarized as follows: 1. Construct a chart which contains a square for each pair of states. 2. Compare each pair of rows in the state table. If the outputs associated with states i and j are different, place an X in square i-j to indicate that i j. If the outputs are the same, place the implied pairs in square i-j. (If the next states of i and j are m and n for some input x, then m-n is an implied pair.) If the outputs and next states are the same (or if i-j only implies itself), place a check (√) in square i-j to indicate that i ≡ j.

18. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design18 Implication Table Method 3.Go through the table square-by-square. If square i-j contains the implied pair m-n, and square m-n contains an X, then i j, and an X should be placed in square i-j. 4.If any X’s were added in step 3, repeat step 3 until no more X’s are added. 5.For each square i-j which does not contain an X, i ≡ j.

19. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design19 Future site of another example.

20. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design20 Derivation of FF Input Equations

21. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design21 Derivation of FF Input Equations After the number of states in a state table has been reduced, the following procedure can be used to derive the flip-flop input equations: 1.Assign flip-flop state values to correspond to the states in the reduced table. 2.Construct a transition table which gives the next states of the flip-flops as a function of the present states and inputs. 3.Derive the next-state maps from the transition table. 4.Find flip-flop input maps from the next-state maps using the techniques developed in Unit 12 and find the flip-flop input equations from the maps.

22. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design22 Example #1: FF Input Equations 1.Assign flip-flop state values to correspond to the states in the reduced table. 2.Construct a transition table which gives the next states of the flip-flops as a function of the present states and inputs.

23. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design23 Example #1: FF Input Equations 3.Derive the next-state maps from the transition table. D FF Characteristic Equation: Q + = D

24. Fall 201024 Example #1: FF Input Equations 4.Derive the flip-flop input maps from the next-state maps; determine the flip-flop input equations from the FF input maps. JK Excitation Table QQ+JK 000x 011x 10x1 11x0

25. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design25 Example #2: FF Input Equations 1.Assign flip-flop state values to correspond to the states in the reduced table. 2.Construct a transition table which gives the next states of the flip-flops as a function of the present states and inputs.

26. Fall 201026 Example #2: FF Input Equations 3.Derive the next-state maps from the transition table. D FF Characteristic Equation: Q + = D

27. Fall 201027 Example #2: FF Input Equations 4.Derive the flip-flop input maps from the next-state maps; determine the flip-flop input equations from the FF input maps. SR Excitation Table QQ+SR 000x 0110 1001 11x0

28. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design28 State Assignment

29. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design29 State Assignments After the number of states in a state table has been reduced, the next step in realizing the transition table (aka. state- assigned table) is to assign flip-flop states (i.e. binary values) to correspond to the states in the state table. The cost of the logic required to realize a sequential circuit is strongly dependent on the way this state assignment is made.

30. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design30 State Assignments Given a sequential circuit with three states and two flip-flops (A and B), there are 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 possible state assignments for the three states.

31. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design31 State Assignments When realizing a three-state sequential circuit with symmetrical flip-flops (i.e. JK or SR), it is only necessary to try three different states to be assured of a minimum cost realization. Similarly, only three different assignments must be tried for four states.

32. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design32 State Assignments

33. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design33 Guidelines for State Assignment Trying all nonequivalent state assignments is not practical in most cases. The following guidelines are useful in making assignments which will place 1’s (or 0's) together in the next-state maps: 1.States which have the same next state for a given input should be given adjacent assignments. 2.States which are the next states of the same state should be given adjacent assignments. 3.States which have the same output for a given input should be given adjacent assignments.

34. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design34 Example: Selecting an Assignment 1.States which have the same next state for a given input should be given adjacent assignments. 2.States which are the next states of the same state should be given adjacent assignments. 3.States which have the same output for a given input should be given adjacent assignments.

35. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design35 Example: Selecting an Assignment Based on the State Assignment Guidelines: 1. (b, d) (c, f) (b, e) 2. (a, c) (d, f) (b, d) (b, f) (c, e) 3. (a, c) (b, d) (e, f)

36. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design36 Example: Selecting an Assignment Resulting Transition Table:

37. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design37 Example: Selecting an Assignment Derivation of FF input equations from next-state maps:

38. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design38 One-Hot State Assignment Sometimes reducing the number of flip-flops used is not as important as reducing the logic feeding into the flip-flops. Using a one-hot state assignment may help accomplish this. The one-hot assignment uses one flip-flop for each state, so a state machine with N states requires N flip-flops. Exactly one of the flip-flops is set to one in each state.

39. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design39 Example: State Assignments For a four-state FSM, three possible state assignments are: StateBinaryGray-codeOne-hot S0S0 00 0001 S1S1 01 0010 S2S2 10110100 S3S3 11101000 # of FF224

40. Fall 2010ECE 331 - Digital System Design40 Questions?