1. Plan for Today: What do we mean by democracy?
Introduction to three basically different categories of definitions of democratic regimes, comparing and contrasting them.

2. Democracy
Demos = people
-cracy = “rule”

3. “Regime” vs. “State,” “Government”
“State”: territorially defined political entity, like “country.”
“Government”: collection of particular leaders fulfilling governing positions at any one time.
“Regime”: Set of rules & institutions defining political system.

4. Different types of definitions of democracy
Procedural: minimalist or complex set of procedures that must exist in politics.
Substantive: emphasize social, economic and political outcomes that must exist.
Process-oriented: set of continual processes that must be going on.

5. Procedural Definitions
Focus on process and rules defining democracy.
Most common definitions today in study of democratization.

6. Procedural Definitions
Minimalist
Complex
Democracy = competitive elections
Additional institutions and/ or liberty protections required

7. Minimalist Electoral Definitions
Define democracy by process used to make up governing institutions.
Require only multi-candidate, competitive elections.

8. Minimalist Electoral Definitions
Joseph Schumpeter’s (1943) definition: “individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote.”
Also Przeworski, Huntington

9. Problems with minimalist procedural definitions
“Fallacy of electoralism” (Terry Karl): The belief that elections equal democracy.
One resolution: label such regimes “electoral democracies”
Regimes that have minimal competitive elections, but no other democratic institutions.

10. More Complex Procedural Definitions
Institutions or guarantees of freedoms, as well as elections, must exist to call regime democratic.
E.g. Liberal definitions of democracy.

11. “Illiberal Democracies” (Fareed Zakaria)
Everyone has the right to vote among multiple candidates, but human rights and individual liberties are not well observed.
Examples: Russia, other post-Soviet, Nigeria, Venezuela.

12. Complex Procedural Definitions Examples of Institutional Requirements
Checks & balances, separation of powers: legislative, executive, & judicial organs separated.
Rule of law: legal rules applied fairly and consistently to all citizens.
Guaranteed protection of minorities.

13. Complex Procedural Definitions Examples
Robert Dahl’s definition of “Polyarchy”:
Opposition – contestation through elections.
Participation – the equal right of all adults to vote and run for office.
Includes certain civil liberties, argued to be essential.

14. Complex Procedural Definitions Examples
Schmitter & Karl: Dahl’s requirements plus a few more:
Elected leaders must not be subject to veto from unelected officials.
Elected officials must be able to make binding decisions without approval of foreign actors.

15. Complex Procedural Definitions Examples
Larry Diamond adds many institutions for protecting liberal democracy:
Constitution.
Civil society.
Independent media.
Independent judiciary.

16. Substantive Definitions of Democracy
More maximalist in nature.
Demand that democratic regime must succeed in providing outcomes that promote equality among citizens.
Frequently democracy must extend beyond formal politics to society and economy.

17. Substantive Definitions Example
Ann Phillips (feminist): outcomes should allow all women to have equal chance with men at participating.
Social and economic inequalities prevent.
Actual participation most important measure of democracy.

18. Process-oriented definitions of democracy
Charles Tilly: such approaches “identify some minimum set of processes that must be continuously in motion for a situation to qualify as democratic”.

19. Examples of process-oriented conceptions
Tilly: regime is “democratic to the degree that political relations between the state and its citizens feature broad, equal, protected, and mutually binding consultation.”
Democracy inheres in the processes going on in relations between the state and citizens.

20. Examples of process-oriented conceptions
Participatory democracy or deliberative democracy.
e.g. Benjamin Barber: “strong democracy in the participatory mode.”