1. Language and Ethnic Identity Formation in the Philippines
Prof. Nestor Castro, PhD
Department of Anthropology
University of the Philippines Diliman

2. Philippine Ethnic Landscape
Archipelago of 7,107 islands
At least 106 ethnic groups
Diverse religious traditions
172 languages

3. Philippine Languages 169 living languages, 3 extinct languages
Of the 169 living languages, 166 are indigenous languages while 3 are foreign languages, namely: English, Spanish, and Minnan Chinese
Of the 166 indigenous languages, 164 belong to the Western Malayo-Polynesian subfamily of the Austronesian family of languages, 1 Creole language (Chavacano), and 1 visual language (Filipino Sign Language)

4. Major Languages 2000 Census of Population and Housing
Tagalog (28.16%)
Cebuano (23.12%)
Ilocano (9.07%)
Hiligaynon (7.57%)
Bikol (6.01%)
Waray (3.36%)
Kapampangan (3.03%)
Pangasinan (1.78%)

5. Other Ethnolinguistic Groups
Bangsa Moro
Lumadnon
Cordillera peoples
Negritos
Mangyan
Tsinoy
Etc.

6. Language and Identity
“It is widely believed that there is a natural connection between the language spoken by members of a social group and that group’s identity. By their accent, their vocabulary, their discourse patterns, speakers identify themselves and are identified as members of this or that speech and discourse community.

7. Language and Identity
“From this membership, they draw personal strength and pride, as well as a sense of social importance and historical continuity from using the same language as the group they belong to.”
- Claire Kramsch, 1998

8. Bases for ethnic identity in the Philippines
Language
Domicile
Phenotypic characteristics
Religion
Culture traits
Ancestry or migration history

9. Ethnicity defined
All those social and psychological phenomena associated with a culturally constructed group identity.
The concept of ethnicity focuses on the ways in which social and cultural processes intersect with one another in the identification of and intersection between ethnic groups.
- Sian Jones, The Archaeology of Ethnicity, 1997

10. Major Languages 2000 Census of Population and Housing
Tagalog (28.16%)
Cebuano (23.12%)
Ilocano (9.07%)
Hiligaynon (7.57%)
Bikol (6.01%)
Waray (3.36%)
Kapampangan (3.03%)
Pangasinan (1.78%)

11. Cultural Emphasis
There are more separate terms, more synonyms, and more fine distinctions made in reference to features of environment or culture with which the speakers are the most concerned.
There are fewer terms and they tend to be more generalized when they refer to features that are given less cultural emphasis.
- Franz Boas, 1911

12. Tagalog terms for “rice”
Palay
Bigas
Sinaing
Kanin
Bahaw
Sinangag
Lugaw Am
Tutong
Binlid
Puto
Suman
Malagkit
Wagwag
Pirurutong
Galapong

13. Kalinga as an ethnic group
The culture of the Kalinga is not homogenous as there are diverse languages, tribes, and cultures in the Province.
The Kalinga people call their language as Kinalingga. However, the Summer Institute of Linguistics lists eight distinct Kinalingga languages: Butbut, Limos, Lower Tanudan, Lubuagan, Mabaka Valley, Southern Kalinga, and Upper Tanudan.

14. Diversity of Kalinga cultures
There are several dialects for each of these eight languages.
Because of historical reasons, Ilokano has been the lingua franca in the area.
There are 48 tribes in the province.
Each tribe is politically autonomous from one another.
There are different clans (kin groups) in each tribe.

15. Why this diversity?
Traditionally, there was no supra-tribal organization.
Inter-tribal relations were maintained through a system of bilateral peace pacts, known as the bodong (or vochong, pechen, pudon).
The Spaniards just lumped together these various tribes as infieles (later, tribus salvajes, and much later Calingas.)
1789 Map of Fray Francisco Antolin

16. Case of Dananao Kalinga
Chinananao: Dialect of Southern Kalinga spoken in the village of Dananao in Tinglayan, Kalinga. Villagers of Dananao are able to differentiate other “tribes” based on the language or dialect that they use.
Kinalingga: Collective name for the languages of Kalinga. The use of these languages differentiate Kalingas from other neighboring ethnolinguistic groups, such as the Itneg (or Tinguian).

17. Chinananao
“Pag may nasasalubong kami ay makikilala namin ito sa mukha dahil sa liit ng Chananao ay halos magkakakilala ang lahat ng taga-dito. Sa intonasyon ng pagsalita ng Kinalingga, dito lang nagkakaiba. Ang aming dayalekto ang pinakamagandang pakinggan dahil ito ay may magandang rito o melodiya.”
- From FGD with Dananao Elders

18. Place, Language, and Ethnic Identity
“Ethnic groups often practice unique adaptive strategies and normally occupy clearly defined areas, whether rural or urban. In other words, the study of ethnicity has built-in geographical dimensions… Because such peoples typically occupy compact territories, we can map ethnic formal culture regions… For these groups… place and region provide a basic element in their ethnic identity.”
- Jordan, Domosh and Rowntree, 1997

19. From fananaw to Dananao
The legend of the fananaw is a symbolic representation of how the first settlers of Dananao separated from Sumadel.
The fananaw as the spatial symbol.
The ullalim (epic chant) reminds people how they engaged enemy tribes through head-taking.

22. Language as Identity among Filipino Deaf
Tagalog speaker = Tagalog
Hiligaynon speaker = Ilongo
English speaker = American
FSL signer = Filipino Deaf

23. deaf vs. Deaf (Adapted from Roach 2002)
Members of the Deaf community who possess a culture of their own.
Proud to be Deaf and feel that Deafness is a vital part of their identity, cherished as much as gender and religious background.
Use FSL and view deafness as a difference rather than a disability.
Often feel a cultural bond with one another based on sharing a common language and dealing with oppression.

24. Hearing vs. Deaf Behavior (Adapted from Gannon 1990)
Use “Hoy!” or “Pssst!”
Doorbell
First name basis
Dim places for dating
Ear contact
“Poker face”
Pointing is rude
Attention-getting devices
Doorlight
Sign-name
Well-lighted places
Eye contact
Facial expressions
Pointing allowed

25. Hearing vs. Deaf Behavior (Adapted from Gannon 1990)
Shaking hands
Talking with mouth full is rude.
Misbehaving children cover their ears.
View deafness as a disability.
Hugging
Can “talk” with mouth full.
Misbehaving children cover their eyes.
Deafness can be a source of pride.

26. Deaf Culture
“It is our joy and pride to let our government and the rest of the world know that we Deaf persons want Filipino Sign Language as our official language. It is a natural visual language that is an important part of Filipino Deaf culture.”
Julius Andrada
Former President, PFD

27. U.P. Department of Anthropology Statement of Concern
“The Filipino Deaf have their own natural language, namely Filipino Sign Language (FSL). This unique language is the basis of Filipino Deaf culture and identity. It is a basic right of all citizens, including the Deaf community, to be taught and educated in their native language… FSL is the mother tongue of Deaf Filipinos and should thus be used as the official medium of instruction for the country’s schools for the Deaf.”
5 September 2011

28. Filipino diaspora
More than 8 million Filipinos are living outside the Philippines.
3.6 million Filipinos working abroad as contractual workers (as of 2004).
Majority of them are working in the Middle East.
These workers come back to the Philippines bringing with them the culture of the country where they came from.

29. Filipino speakers in the US

30. Conclusion
Language is one of the strong determinants of ethnic identity.
Since a living language is constant change, ethnic identities also change.
Ethnic groups that experience language loss are also threatened with cultural extinction.
As different ethnic groups interact with one another, new ethnic identities emerge. Multiple identities become more common.