1. Explanations of dysfunctional behaviour G543

2. Different approaches have different assumptions about db –Behavioural  Db is learnt by conditioning or social learning –Biological  Db has genetic cause or malformation of brain structures –Cognitive  Problem with internal processing of information

3. Different approaches have different assumptions about db Using these three areas can you explain the following phobias using each approach: Using these three areas can you explain the following phobias using each approach: Fear of a specific object or situation such as: - Fear of a specific object or situation such as: - –Arachnophobia – Fear of spiders –Claustrophobia – Fear of enclosed spaces –Aerophobia – Fear of flying –Acrophobia – Fear of heights –Alektorophobia – Fear of chickens –Androphobia – Fear of men –Carnophobia – Fear of meat –Emetophobia – Fear of vomiting –Phobophobia – Fear of phobias!

4. Behavioural Explanations Behaviourists argue that abnormal behaviour is learnt in the same way that all behaviour is learnt Behaviourists argue that abnormal behaviour is learnt in the same way that all behaviour is learnt There are 3 learning theories that provide us with explanations for phobias: There are 3 learning theories that provide us with explanations for phobias: Classical conditioning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning Social Learning theory Social Learning theory

5. Watson and Raynor (1920) – Little Albert and the White Rat Operant conditioning is learning from the consequences of actions. Operant conditioning is learning from the consequences of actions. Actions which have a good outcome through positive reinforcement (reward),will be repeated Actions which have a good outcome through positive reinforcement (reward),will be repeated Actions where there is negative reinforcement (the removal of something bad), will be repeated Actions where there is negative reinforcement (the removal of something bad), will be repeated Actions where there is no reinforcement tend to die out or be extinguished Actions where there is no reinforcement tend to die out or be extinguished Operant Conditioning - Skinner Operant Conditioning - Skinner

6. Positive Reinforcement If someone is rewarded for showing a phobic reaction this could perpetrate the behaviour. If someone is rewarded for showing a phobic reaction this could perpetrate the behaviour. E.g. A child who is frightened by a barking dog may get cuddles from their parents and continues with this response every time they see a dog. E.g. A child who is frightened by a barking dog may get cuddles from their parents and continues with this response every time they see a dog. The pattern of behaviour becomes entrenched and is by definition unreasonable The pattern of behaviour becomes entrenched and is by definition unreasonable

7. Negative reinforcement When we get anxious around phobic stimuli heights, needles etc we avoid them. When we get anxious around phobic stimuli heights, needles etc we avoid them. This prevents the anxiety and acts as negative reinforcement. This prevents the anxiety and acts as negative reinforcement. Again the behaviour becomes entrenched. Again the behaviour becomes entrenched. Operant Conditioning and Phobias Operant Conditioning and Phobias

8. Behavioural Explanations These may operate alone or in conjunction with each other to explain the development of a phobia These may operate alone or in conjunction with each other to explain the development of a phobia Can you explain how these could cause any disorders in the DSM or ICD? Can you explain how these could cause any disorders in the DSM or ICD?

9. Watson, J.B., & Rayner, R.

10. Watson theorised, emotional responses exist in us because we have been conditioned to respond emotionally to certain stimuli in the environment. ( We learn our emotional reactions). Watson theorised, emotional responses exist in us because we have been conditioned to respond emotionally to certain stimuli in the environment. ( We learn our emotional reactions). Watson believed that all human behavior was a product of learning and conditioning. Watson believed that all human behavior was a product of learning and conditioning. Most psychologists, as well as public opinion in general, were not ready to accept these new ideas Most psychologists, as well as public opinion in general, were not ready to accept these new ideas So Watson set out to demonstrate that emotions could be experimentally conditioned So Watson set out to demonstrate that emotions could be experimentally conditioned

11. Watson theorised that if a stimulus that automatically produces a certain emotion in you (such as fear) is repeatedly experienced at the same moment as something else, it will become associated in your brain with the fear Watson theorised that if a stimulus that automatically produces a certain emotion in you (such as fear) is repeatedly experienced at the same moment as something else, it will become associated in your brain with the fear We are not born to fear rats, such fears are learned through conditioning We are not born to fear rats, such fears are learned through conditioning This formed the theoretical basis involving a subject named “Little Albert” This formed the theoretical basis involving a subject named “Little Albert”

12. The subject, Albert, was recruited for this study at 9 months The subject, Albert, was recruited for this study at 9 months In order to see if Albert was afraid of certain stimuli, he was presented with a white rat, a rabbit, an other white furry objects. In order to see if Albert was afraid of certain stimuli, he was presented with a white rat, a rabbit, an other white furry objects. At no time did this infant ever show fear in any situation. At no time did this infant ever show fear in any situation. To determine if a fear reaction could be produced in Albert, a steel bar was struck with a hammer behind him. This noise startled and frightened him and made him cry To determine if a fear reaction could be produced in Albert, a steel bar was struck with a hammer behind him. This noise startled and frightened him and made him cry Every time the white rat came near Albert, he would hear the loud noise and it would frighten him. This was repeated with other white furry objects (rabbit) This proved that the emotion of fear could be conditioned Every time the white rat came near Albert, he would hear the loud noise and it would frighten him. This was repeated with other white furry objects (rabbit) This proved that the emotion of fear could be conditioned After 31 days (rest period), he was presented again with the white rat and was still very afraid( learned emotional response persisted over time) After 31 days (rest period), he was presented again with the white rat and was still very afraid( learned emotional response persisted over time)

13. Terminology Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur). Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur). b) Unconditioned Response (UR) - an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning. b) Unconditioned Response (UR) - an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning. c) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. c) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. d) Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning. d) Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning.

14. Watson’s Fundamental goals in this experiment: Watson’s Fundamental goals in this experiment: a) To demonstrate that the Freudian conception of psychology, that our behavior stems from unconscious processes, was wrong. b) To demonstrate that all human behavior stems from learning and conditioning. This study proved that emotional behavior could be conditioned through simple stimulus response techniques and also launched behaviorism This study proved that emotional behavior could be conditioned through simple stimulus response techniques and also launched behaviorism Their main point was that they had demonstrated with little Albert that emotional disturbances in adults cannot always be attributed to sexual traumas in childhood, as the Freudian view was commonly interpreted Their main point was that they had demonstrated with little Albert that emotional disturbances in adults cannot always be attributed to sexual traumas in childhood, as the Freudian view was commonly interpreted

15. Fear in its extreme form, can produce serious negative consequences known as phobias Fear in its extreme form, can produce serious negative consequences known as phobias Many psychologists believed that phobias are conditioned much like Little Albert’s fear of furry animals Many psychologists believed that phobias are conditioned much like Little Albert’s fear of furry animals Watson’s research has been incorporated into many recent studies about the origins and treatments of phobias Watson’s research has been incorporated into many recent studies about the origins and treatments of phobias Kendler, Karkowski, and Prescott (1999)- Evidence that the development of phobias may include a substantial genetic component. Kendler, Karkowski, and Prescott (1999)- Evidence that the development of phobias may include a substantial genetic component.

17. “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well- formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select–a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- chief, and, yes, even into a beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.” [Watson, 1924, p. 10] “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well- formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select–a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- chief, and, yes, even into a beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.” [Watson, 1924, p. 10]

18. Stimulus Generalization In addition to demonstrating that emotional responses could be conditioned in humans, Watson and Raynor also observed that stimulus generalisation had occurred. In addition to demonstrating that emotional responses could be conditioned in humans, Watson and Raynor also observed that stimulus generalisation had occurred.stimulus generalisationstimulus generalisation After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide variety of similar white objects as well. After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide variety of similar white objects as well. His fear included other furry objects including Raynor's fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard. His fear included other furry objects including Raynor's fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.

19. Criticisms of the Little Albert Experiment While the experiment is one of psychology's most famous and is included in nearly every introductory psychology course, it has also been criticised widely for several reasons. While the experiment is one of psychology's most famous and is included in nearly every introductory psychology course, it has also been criticised widely for several reasons. First, the experimental design and process was not carefully constructed. First, the experimental design and process was not carefully constructed. Watson and Raynor did not develop an object means to evaluate Albert's reactions, instead relying on their own subjective interpretations. Watson and Raynor did not develop an object means to evaluate Albert's reactions, instead relying on their own subjective interpretations. Secondly, the experiment also raises many ethical concerns. Secondly, the experiment also raises many ethical concerns. The Little Albert experiment could not be conducted by today's standards because it would be unethical. The Little Albert experiment could not be conducted by today's standards because it would be unethical.

20. What Ever Happened to Little Albert? The question of what happened to Little Albert has long been one of psychology's mysteries. The question of what happened to Little Albert has long been one of psychology's mysteries. Watson and Raynor were unable to attempt to eliminate the boy's conditioned fear because he moved with his mother shortly after the experiment ended. Watson and Raynor were unable to attempt to eliminate the boy's conditioned fear because he moved with his mother shortly after the experiment ended. Some envisioned the boy growing into a man with a strange phobia of white, furry objects. Some envisioned the boy growing into a man with a strange phobia of white, furry objects.

21. What Ever Happened to Little Albert? Recently, however, the true identity and fate of the boy known as Little Albert was discovered. Recently, however, the true identity and fate of the boy known as Little Albert was discovered. As reported in American Psychologist, a seven- year search led by psychologist Hall P. Beck led to the discovery. As reported in American Psychologist, a seven- year search led by psychologist Hall P. Beck led to the discovery. After tracking down the location of the original experiments and the real identity of the boy's mother, it was discovered that Little Albert was actually a boy named Douglas Merritte. After tracking down the location of the original experiments and the real identity of the boy's mother, it was discovered that Little Albert was actually a boy named Douglas Merritte.

22. What Ever Happened to Little Albert? The story does not have a happy ending, however. The story does not have a happy ending, however. Douglas died at the age of six on May 10, 1925 of hydrocephalus, a build-up of fluid in his brain. "Our search of seven years was longer than the little boy’s life," Beck wrote of the discovery. Douglas died at the age of six on May 10, 1925 of hydrocephalus, a build-up of fluid in his brain. "Our search of seven years was longer than the little boy’s life," Beck wrote of the discovery.

23. Task In bullet point write out the procedure/or you can use a cartoon storyboard In bullet point write out the procedure/or you can use a cartoon storyboard Explain reasons to why Little Albert formed a phobia (10) Explain reasons to why Little Albert formed a phobia (10) Evaluate the study (15) Evaluate the study (15)