1. Chapter 9 : Stoichiometry

2. Section 1: Introduction to Stoichiometry
composition stoichiometry - deals with the mass relationships of elements in compounds
reaction stoichiometry – involves the mass relationships between reactants and products in a chemical reaction

3. Section 1: Introduction to Stoichiometry
Reaction stoichiometry is the subject of this unit, and it is based on chemical equations and the law of conservation of mass. All reaction stoichiometry calculations start with a balanced chemical equation. Remember that this equation gives the relative numbers of moles of reactants and products.

4. Reaction Stoichiometry Problems
Reaction stoichiometry problems can be classified according to the information given in the problem and the information you are expected to find, the unknown. The given and the unknown may both be reactants, they may both be products, or one may be a reactant and the other a product.

5. Reaction Stoichiometry Problems
The masses are typically expressed in grams, but may be presented in kilograms or milligrams. Stoichiometric problems are solved by using ratios from the balanced equation to convert the given quantity using the methods below.

6. Types of Stoichiometry Problems
Problem Type 1: Given and unknown quantities are amounts in moles.
Problem Type 2: Given is an amount in moles and unknown is a mass that is often expressed in grams.
Problem Type 3: Given is a mass in grams and unknown is an amount in moles.
Problem Type 4: Given is a mass in grams and unknown is a mass in grams.

7. Mole Ratio
mole ratio - a conversion factor that relates the amounts in moles of any two substances involved in a chemical reaction

8. Example Problem
Solving any reaction stoichiometry problem requires the use of a mole ratio to convert from moles or grams of one substance to moles or grams of another substance. The mole ratio is provided in the balanced chemical equation.
Example: 2Al2O3(l)  4Al(s) + 3O2(g)
Let’s determine the mole ratios that exist for the above equation.

9. Example Problem
This equation represents the decomposition of aluminum oxide, and the appropriate mole ratio can be used as a conversion factor to determine the amount in moles of aluminum that can be produced from 13.0 mol of aluminum oxide. Let’s work it out:

10. Molar Mass
molar mass - the mass, in grams, of one mole of a substance

11. Molar Mass
The molar mass is the conversion factor that relates the mass of a substance to the amount in moles of that substance. We will use the periodic table to determine molar masses for reaction stoichiometry problems.

12. Example problem Example: 2Al2O3(l)  4Al(s) + 3O2(g)
Let’s determine the molar masses for each substance in our previous example.
1 mol Al2O3 = _______________ g
1 mol Al = _______________ g
1 mol O2 = _______________ g

13. Example problem
Now let’s express these molar masses as conversion factors:

14. Example Problem
Finally, let’s find the number of grams of aluminum oxide equivalent to 26.0 mol of aluminum using the appropriate conversion factor:

15. Practice Problems For each equation, write all possible mole ratios.
2HgO(s)  2Hg(l) + O2(g)
  4NH3(g) + 6NO(g)  5N2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Given the following chemical equation, determine to two decimal places the molar masses of all substances involved. Then, write the molar masses as conversion factors.
Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2  2NaOH(aq) + CaCO3(s)

16. Section 2: Ideal Stoichiometric Calculations
Solving any reaction stoichiometry problem must begin with a balanced equation. Chemical equations allow us to make predictions about chemical reactions without having to run the reactions in the laboratory. For now the calculations described are theoretical amounts of reactants and products for reactions under ideal conditions where all reactants are completely converted into products.

17. Section 2: Ideal Stoichiometric Calculations
However, many reactions do not completely convert the reactants to products. So why bother using theoretical stoichiometric calculations? They allow us to determine the maximum amount of product that could be obtained in a reaction without actually performing the reaction.

18. Conversions of Quantities in Moles: Example Problem
In a spacecraft, the carbon dioxide exhaled by astronauts can be removed by its reaction with lithium hydroxide, LiOH, according to the following chemical equation.
CO2(g) + 2LiOH(s)  Li2CO3(s) + H2O(l)
How many moles of lithium hydroxide are required to react with 20 mol CO2, the average amount exhaled by a person each day?

19. Practice Problems
Ammonia, NH3, is widely used as a fertilizer and in many household cleaners. How many moles of ammonia are produced when 6 mol of hydrogen gas react with an excess of nitrogen gas?

20. Practice Problems
The decomposition of potassium chlorate, KClO3, is used as a source of oxygen in the laboratory. How many moles of potassium chlorate are needed to produce 15 mol of oxygen gas?

21. Conversion of Amounts in Moles to Mass: Example Problem
In photosynthesis, plants use energy from the sun to produce glucose, C6H12O6, and oxygen from the reaction of carbon dioxide and water. What mass, in grams, of glucose is produced when 3.00 mol of water react with carbon dioxide?

22. Conversion of Amounts in Moles to Mass: Example Problem
What mass of carbon dioxide, in grams, is needed to react with 3.00 mol H2O in the photosynthesis reaction?

23. Practice Problem
When magnesium burns in air, it combines with oxygen to form magnesium oxide according to the following equation:
2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)
What mass, in grams, of magnesium oxide is produced from 2.00 mol of magnesium?

24. Practice problem
What mass of glucose can be produced from a photosynthesis reaction that occurs using 10 mol of carbon dioxide?
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)  C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

25. Conversions of Mass to Amounts in Moles: Example Problem
The first step in the industrial manufacture of nitric acid is the catalytic oxidation of ammonia.
NH3(g) + O2(g)  NO(g) + H2O(g) (unbalanced)
The reaction is run using 824g NH3 and excess oxygen.
How many moles of NO are formed?
How many moles of H2O are formed?

26. Practice problem
Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestly in 1774 when he heated mercury (II) oxide to decompose it to form its constituent elements.
How many moles of mercury (II) oxide, HgO, are needed to produce 125g of oxygen, O2?
How many moles of mercury are produced?

27. Mass-Mass Calculations: Example Problem
Tin (II) fluoride, SnF2, is used in some toothpastes. It is made by the reaction of tin with hydrogen fluoride according to the following equation:
Sn(s) + 2HF(g)  SnF2(s) + H2(g)
How many grams of SnF2are produced from the reaction of g HF with Sn?

28. Practice Problem
Laughing gas (nitrous oxide, N2O) is sometimes used as an anesthetic in dentistry. It is produced when ammonium nitrate is decomposed according to the following reaction:
NH4NO3(s)  N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)
How many grams of NH4NO3 are required to produce 33.0 g N2O?
How many grams of water are produced in this reaction?

29. Practice problem
When copper metal is added to silver nitrate in solution, silver metal and copper (II) nitrate are produced. What mass of silver is produced from 100. g Cu?
What mass of aluminum is produced by the decomposition of 5.0 kg Al2O3?

30. Section 3: Limiting Reactant and percent yield
limiting reactant - the reactant that limits the amount of the other reactant that can combine and the amount of product that can form in a chemical reaction; also called a limiting reagent
excess reactant – the substance that is not used up completely in a reaction

31. Section 3: Limiting Reactant and percent yield
In a lab setting, a reaction is rarely carried out using exact amounts of required reactants. Usually one or more reactants is present in excess. When one of the reactants is used up, no more product can be formed.

32. Section 3: Limiting Reactant and percent yield
If 400 people want to travel on a flight and only 350 seats are available, then only 350 people can go on the flight. The number of seats available limits the number of travelers.
If there are 15 baseball players on a team and only 9 can play on the field, then only 9 team members can play. The number of positions on the field limits the number of playing teammates.

33. Section 3: Limiting Reactant and percent yield
You have a fruit salad recipe that calls for 1 orange, 2 apples, and 10 strawberries. If you have 10 oranges, 20 apples, and 50 strawberries, you will only be able to make 5 batches of your fruit salad. What limits the number of salads you can make?

34. Section 3: Limiting Reactant and percent yield
The same reasoning can be applied to chemical reactions. Consider the reaction involved in the formation of carbon dioxide:
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
According to the equation, one mole of carbon reacts with one mole of oxygen to form one mole of carbon dioxide. Suppose you could mix 5 mol C with 10 mol O2 and allow the reaction to take place.

35. Section 3: Limiting Reactant and percent yield
How many moles of carbon dioxide would form?
Is there a limiting reactant or excess reactant present? What is it?

36. Section 3: Limiting Reactant and percent yield

37. Sample problem
Silicon dioxide (quartz) is usually quite unreactive but reacts readily with hydrogen fluoride according to the following equation:
SiO2(s) + 4HF(g)  SiF4(g) + 2H20(l)
If 6.0 mol HF is added to 4.5 mol SiO2, what is the limiting reactant?

38. Practice problems
Some rocket engines use a mixture of hydrazine, N2H4, and hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, as the propellant. The reaction is given by the following equation:
N2H4(l) + 2H2O2(l)  N2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Which is the limiting reactant in this reaction when mol N2H4 is mixed with mol H2O2?

39. Sample problem
The black oxide of iron, Fe3O4, occurs in nature as the mineral magnetite. This substance can also be made in the laboratory by the reaction between red-hot iron and steam according to the following equation:
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)  Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
When 36.0 g H2O is mixed with 67.0 g Fe, which is the limiting reactant?

40. Practice problem
Zinc and sulfur react to form zinc sulfide according to the following equation:
8Zn(s) + S8(s)  8ZnS(s)
If 2.00 mol of Zn are heated with 1.00 mol of S8, identify the limiting reactant.

41. Practice problem
Carbon reactants with steam,H2O, at high temperatures to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
If 2.40 mol of carbon are exposed to 3.10 mol of steam, identify the limiting reactant.

42. Percentage Yield
theoretical yield - the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant
actual yield – the measured amount of a product obtained from a reaction
percentage yield – the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, multiplied by 100

43. Percentage Yield
We have been discussing and practicing reactions run under “ideal conditions,” where the amounts of products calculated represent theoretical yields. In most reactions, the amount of product obtained is less than the theoretical yield.

44. Percentage Yield
This could be because of reactants containing impurities; reactants forming byproducts in side reactions; or reactions not going to completion. As chemists, we are interested in the efficiency of a reaction. The efficiency is expressed by the percentage yield.

45. Percentage Yield actual yield
percentage yield = x 100
theoretical yield

46. Sample problem C6H6(l) + Cl2(g)  C6H5Cl(l) + HCl(g)
When 36.8 g C6H6 react with an excess of Cl2, the actual yield of C6H5Cl is 38.8 g. What is the percentage yield of C6H5Cl?

47. Practice problem
Methanol can be produced through the reaction of CO and H2 in the presence of a catalyst:
CO(g) + 2H2(g)  CH3OH(l)
If 75.0 g of CO reacts to produce 68.4 g CH3OH, what is the percentage yield of CH3OH?

48. Practice problem
Aluminum reacts with excess copper(II) sulfate according to the reaction given below. If 1.85 g of Al react and the percentage yield of Cu is 56.6%, what mass of Cu is produced?
Al(s) + CuSO4(aq)  Al2(SO4)3(aq) + Cu(s)