1. 9-1

2. Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to
Characterize the scope and value of biodiversity on Earth
Describe ways to measure biodiversity
Evaluate the primary causes of biodiversity loss
Specify the benefits and challenges of conserving habitat and the role of habitat fragmentation
Contrast in situ and ex situ conservation approaches
Compare and contrast traditional and innovative conservation efforts
Outline reasons for setting aside parks, reserves, and other protected areas

3. 9-3

4. Central Case: Saving the Polar Bear: What Will it Take?
“There will be no polar ice by Somewhere along that path, the polar bear drops out.”
COSEWIC – polar bear would not be listed as a “threatened” species; why not?
Polar bears coming into contact and interbreeding with other types of bears
Polar bears are appearing more frequently in human settlements
Traditional Inuit hunting practices are being affected by the loss of sea ice
What will it take to save the polar bear?
9-4

5. Our Planet of Life
9-5

6. Biodiversity encompasses several levels
Biodiversity = sum total of all organisms in an area
Species diversity
Genetic diversity
Ecosystem diversity

7. Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
Species Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular region
Species richness = the number of species
Evenness or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewed
Speciation generates new species and adds to species richness
Extinction reduces species richness

8. Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
Species Diversity
Immigration is the inmigration of a species to an area
Emigration is the outmigration of a species from an area
Extirpation is the local extinction of a species

9. Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
Taxonomists = scientists who classify species using physical appearance and genetics
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Every species has a two-part scientific name: genus and species

10. Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
Genetic Diversity
All species consist of individuals that vary genetically from one another to some degree
Encompasses the varieties in DNA among individuals within species and populations
The raw material for adaptation to local conditions

11. Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
Genetic Diversity
Populations with low genetic diversity are vulnerable
Inbreeding depression = genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring
Genetic bottleneck = limited variety of genetic material is available to be passed along by the small number of surviving individuals to their descendants

12. Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems
Also encompasses differing communities and habitats
Rapid vegetation change and varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of biodiversity
Ecotones = where different types of habitats intermix

13. Some groups hold more species than others
Insects predominate over all other life-forms
40% of all insects are beetles
Groups accumulate species by
Adaptive radiation
Allopatric speciation
Low rates of extinction

14. Insects outnumber all other species

15. Measuring biodiversity is not easy
Precise quantitative measurements are difficult
About 1.8 million species but likely higher
Incomplete for several reasons
Some areas of Earth little explored
Many species are tiny and overlooked
Many organisms are difficult to identify
9-15

16. Biodiversity is unevenly distributed on the planet
Latitudinal gradient = species richness increases towards the equator
Plant productivity and climate stability play key roles

17. Latitudinal gradient has many causes

18. Biodiversity Loss and Species Extinction
9-18

19. Biodiversity loss and species extinction
Canadian Species at Risk Act uses categorizes:
Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist
Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally
Endangered = species in imminent danger of becoming extirpated or extinct
Threatened = species likely to become endangered in the near future

20. Extinction and extirpation occur naturally
Paleontologists estimate 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct
Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety of reasons
1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species would go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years
1 extinction per 1 to 10 million species for mammals and marine species per year

21. Extinction and extirpation occur naturally (cont’d)
Earth has experienced five previous mass extinction episodes
In the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all species
Today’s mass extinction is caused by humans and humans will suffer as a result of it

22. Some species are more vulnerable to extinction than others
In general, extinction occurs when environmental conditions change so severely that a species cannot adapt to the change
Vulnerable = species that are of particular concern because of characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events
9-22

23. Humans may have started the sixth mass extinction
Extinctions followed human arrival on islands and continents

24. Humans may have started the sixth mass extinction (cont’d)
Global extinction rate is 100 to 1000 times greater than background rate
The Red List = an updated global list of species facing high risks of extinctions
23% of mammal species
12% of bird species
17% to 75% of all other species
Extinction is only part of the story of biodiversity loss, the larger part of the story is decline in population sizes

25. Humans may have started the sixth mass extinction (cont’d)
The Living Planet Index quantifies degradation
Between 1970 and 2007, the Index fell by 30%

26. There are several major causes of biodiversity loss
Reasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted and factors may interact synergistically
Causes of population decline:
Habitat alteration
Invasive species
Pollution
Overharvesting
Climate change
Think about in relation to Vancouver Island

27. There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
Habitat alteration
The greatest cause of biodiversity loss
Farming simplifies communities
Grazing modifies the grassland structure and species composition
Clearing forests removes resources organisms need
Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into reservoirs upstream
Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural communities
A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats

28. There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
Invasive species
Introduction of non-native species to new environments
Accidental: zebra mussels
Deliberate: food crops
Island species are especially vulnerable
Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites
Cost billions of dollars in economic damage

29. There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
Pollution
Harms organisms in many ways
Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems
Water pollution adversely affects fish and amphibians
Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic species
The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are dramatic and well known

30. There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
Overharvesting
Vulnerable species are large, few in number, long-lived, and have few young (K-selected species)
The Siberian tiger (The 1989 political freedom in Soviet Union brought the freedom to hunt)
Atlantic gray whale has gone extinct
Thousands of sharks killed just for fins
Gorillas killed for their meat

31. There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
Climate change
Global impact on habitat and biodiversity
Greenhouse gases modifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather events
Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges
Most animals and plants will not be able to cope

32. Over 2500 amphibian species worldwide are in decline
Some may be lost before they are even discovered
Amphibians are regarded as “biological indicators”
Habitat loss, especially draining of wetlands, is the leading threat to amphibians in Canada
Pollution, fragmentation also problems
9-32

33. Benefits of Biodiversity
9-33

34. Biodiversity provides ecosystem services
Provides food, fuel, and fibre
Provides shelter and building materials
Purifies air and water
Detoxifies and decomposes wastes
Stabilizes and moderates Earth’s climate
Moderates floods, droughts, wind, and temperature extremes
Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients
Pollinates plants, including many crops
Controls pests and diseases
Maintains genetic resources as inputs to crop varieties, livestock breeds, and medicines
Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits
Gives us the means to adapt to change
The annual value of just 17 ecosystem services = $16 to 54 trillion per year

35. Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem integrity
Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems
Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s ability to function and provide services to our society
The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently
If the species can be functionally replaced by others, it may make little difference
Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappear
Precautionary principle: “To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering” (Aldo Leopold)

36. Biodiversity enhances food security
Genetic diversity within crops is enormously valuable
California’s barley crops annually receive $160 million in disease resistance benefits from Ethiopian strains of barley
Wild strains provide disease resistance and have the ability to grow back year after year without being replanted
New potential food crops are waiting to be used
Serendipity berry produces a sweetener 3,000 times sweeter than sugar

37. Biodiversity provides drugs and medicines
Each year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in sales

38. Bioprospecting in Costa Rica
weighing the issues
Bioprospecting in Costa Rica
Bioprospectors for pharmaceutical companies scour biodiversity-rich countries, searching for organisms that might provide new drugs, foods, or other valuable products. Many have been criticized for harvesting indigenous species to create commercial products that do not benefit the country of origin. Costa Rica reached an agreement with Merck for $1.1 million, a small royalty rate on any products developed, and training for Costa Rican scientists.
Do you think both sides won in this agreement?
What is Merck discovers a compound that could be turned into a billion-dollar drug?
Does this provide a good model for other countries, and for other companies?

39. How Best to Conserve Biodiversity?
weighing the issues
How Best to Conserve Biodiversity?
Most people view national parks and ecotourism as excellent ways to help keep ecological systems intact. Yet the golden toad went extinct despite living within a reserve established to protect it, and climate change does not pay attention to park boundaries.
What lesson can we learn from this about the conservation of biodiversity?

40. Biodiversity provides additonal economic benefits
Ecotourism is particularly beneficial in developing countries
Costa Rica: rainforests
Australia: Great Barrier Reef
Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests
Incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and on native species
Too many visitors can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife

41. People value and seek out connections with nature
Biophilia = connections that humans subconsciously seek with life
Our affinity for parks and wildlife
Keeping of pets
High value of real estate with views of natural lands
Nature deficit disorder = alienation from the natural environment
May be behind the emotional and physical problems of the young
Resources: “Biophilic Design” (film);
Last Child in the Woods by Reichard Louv

42. Approaches to Conservation
9-42

43. Conservation biology addresses habitat degradation and species loss
Conservation biology = understanding the factors, forces, and processes that influence the loss and protection, and restoration of biological diversity
Conservation biologists choose questions and pursue research with the aim of developing solutions to the problems of habitat degradation and species loss
Applied and goal-orientated science, with implicit values and ethical standards

44. Conservation biology arose in response to biodiversity loss

45. Conservation biology addresses habitat degradation and species loss (cont’d)
Use field data, lab data, theory, and experiments to study impacts of humans on other organisms
Design, test, and implement ways to mitigate impacts
Minimum viable population = how small a population can become before it runs into problems
Organisms distributed as a network of subpopulations
Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special attention

46. Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation
Equilibrium theory of island biogeography = explains how species come to be distributed among oceanic islands
Also applies to “habitat islands” – patches of one habitat type isolated within a “sea” of others (i.e. the basic concept also applies to terrestrial environments)
Explains how the number of species on an island results from an equilibrium between immigration and extirpation
Predicts an island’s species richness based on the island’s size and distance from the mainland

47. Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation (cont’d)
Species richness results from island size and distance
Fewer species colonize an island far from the mainland
Large islands have higher immigration rates
Large islands have lower extinction rates

48. Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation (cont’d)
Species-area curves
Large islands contain more species than small islands
They are easier to find and have lower extinction rates
They possess more habitats

49. Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation (cont’d)
Forests are fragmented by roads and logging
Small forest fragments lose diversity fastest
Starting with large species
Fragmentation is one of the prime threats to biodiversity

50. Captive breeding and cloning are single-species approaches
Captive breeding – individuals are bred and raised with the intent of reintroducing them into the wild
Zoos and botanical gardens
Some reintroductions require international cooperation
Whooping cranes in Wood Buffalo Park (Canada) and Gulf coast of Texas (U.S.)
Some habitat is so fragmented, a species cannot survive once reintroduced 50

51. Captive breeding and cloning are single-species approaches (cont’d)
Cloning – a technique to create more individuals and save species from extinction
Most biologists agree that these efforts are not adequate to recreate the lost biodiversity
Even if cloning can succeed, ample habitat and protection in the wild are needed to save species

52. Fragmentation and biodiversity
weighing the issues
Fragmentation and biodiversity
Suppose a critic of conservation tells you that human development increases biodiversity, pointing out that when a forest is fragmented, new habitats, such as grassy lots and gardens, may be introduced to an area and allow additional species to live there.
How would you respond?

53. Some species act as “umbrellas” to protect communities
Conservation biologists use particular umbrella species as tools to conserve communities and ecosystems
helps protect less-charismatic animals
Flagship species – large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation
The World Wildlife Fund’s panda bear
Some organizations are moving beyond the single species approach to focus on whole landscapes 53

54. Conservation efforts are both national and international
2002: Species at Risk Act stresses cooperation with landowners and governments to avoid hostility
Some say SARA is too weak
COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) = expert committee that reports the status of species at risk
1973: UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) – protects endangered species by banning international transport of their body parts 54

55. Hot spots highlight areas of high biodiversity
Biodiversity hotspots – prioritizes regions most important globally for biodiversity
Support a great number of endemic species = species found nowhere else in the world
The area must have at least 1500 endemic plant species (0.5% of the world total)
It must have lost 70% of its habitat due to human impact 55

56. There are 34 global biodiversity hotspots
Hot spots highlight areas of high biodiversity (cont’d)
There are 34 global biodiversity hotspots
2.3% of the planet’s land surface contains 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species

57. Community- based conservation is increasingly popular
Community-based conservation = conservation biologists actively engage local people in protecting land and wildlife
Protecting land deprives people access to resources
Can guarantee that these resources will not be used up or sold to foreign corporations and can instead be sustainably managed 57

58. Innovative economic strategies are being employed
Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a portion of a developing country’s international debt
In exchange for a promise by the country to set aside reserves
Fund environmental education, and
Better manage protected areas
Conservation concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources 58

59. Parks and Reserves
9-59

60. Why do we create parks and reserves?
Enormous, beautiful, or unusual features inspire people to protect them – monumentalism
Protected areas offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters, and others
Protected areas offer utilitarian benefits and ecosystem services
Parks make use of sites lacking economically valuable material resources or that are hard to develop
9-60

61. Why do we create parks and reserves (cont)?
There are 43 national parks in Canada
Many sites in a parks system also serve as wildlife refuges
Some find hunting in parks objectionable
Hunters often in forefront of conservation
Ducks Unlimited Canada
9-61

62. Why do we create parks and reserves (cont)?
Not everyone supports land set-asides
Wise-use movement – dedicated to protecting private property rights; opposing government regulation; transferring federal lands to state, local, or private hands; promoting motorized recreation on public lands
Farmers, ranchers, trappers, mineral prospectors, as well as groups representing industries that extract timber, mineral, and fossil fuels.
9-62

63. Parks and reserves are increasing internationally
Many nations have established national park systems and are benefiting from ecotourism
Parks in developing countries do not always receive the funding, legal support, or enforcement support they need to manage resources
Many of the world’s protected areas are merely paper parks
Costa Rican parks initially received little funding
9-63

64. Parks and reserves are increasing internationally (cont’d)
World Heritage Sites – under national sovereignty but are designated or partly managed internationally by the United Nations
Biosphere reserves – tracts of land with exceptional biodiversity that couple preservation with sustainable development to benefit local people
Core area
Buffer zone
Outer transitional one
Cores and corridors – proposals to connect major parks, such as the “Yukon to Yellowstone” initiative are intended to increase landscape connectivity
9-64

65. Conclusion
Loss of biodiversity threatens to result in a mass extinction
Primary causes of biodiversity loss are:
Habitat alteration, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic resources, and climate change
Human society cannot function without biodiversity’s pragmatic benefits, but biodiversity also enriches our experience and quality of life
Science can help save species, preserve habitats, restore populations, and keep natural ecosystems intact
Video link to Spoil, about the endangerment of the Central Coast ecosystem: 65

66. QUESTION: Review
Which level is NOT included in the concept of biodiversity?
Species
Genetics
Ecosystems
All of the above are included in this concept
Answer: d

67. QUESTION: Review
What happens when a species experiences “inbreeding depression”?
The species becomes too large for the resource base
Genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring
Genetically similar parents mate and produce superior offspring
The number and variety of species increases
Answer: b

68. QUESTION: Review Species richness increases towards the equator
According to the concept of “latitudinal gradient,” which of the following happens?
Species richness increases towards the equator
Species richness decreases towards the equator
Species richness decreases over time
Countries like Canada have many more species than expected
Answer: a

69. QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is the major cause of extinction?
Invasive species
Pollution
Habitat loss
Overharvesting
Answer: c

70. QUESTION: Review Biodiversity does all of the following, except…
Provide ecosystem services
Decrease food security
Maintain ecosystem function
Provide aesthetic benefits
Answer: b

71. QUESTION: Review
According to the theory of island biogeography, which island would have the highest species richness?
A large island, close to the mainland
A large island, far from the mainland
A small island, close to the mainland
A small island, far from the mainland
Answer: a

72. QUESTION: Review A “biodiversity hotspot” is…?
An area located near the equator
An area that supports few, but large, species
An area that contains naturally high numbers of people
An area that contains a large number of endemic species
Answer: d

73. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Where would ecotourists go to view the maximum species richness on these islands?
a) Redonda
b) Montserrat
c) Puerto Rico
d) Hispaniola
Answer: d