1. Post-test review session Tuesday Nov 22 4-5 in TH241

2. Agenda for the next 10 classes? Here are some possible topics to cover: –Neural Correlates of Consciousness –Language and Music –Memory –Motor Control and Mirror Neurons –Autism –Schizophrenia –Addiction –Dementia and Cognitive Aging –Writing Workshop

3. Neural Correlates of Visual Awareness

4. A Hard Problem Are all organisms conscious?

5. A Hard Problem Are all organisms conscious? If not, what’s the difference between those that are and those that are not? –Complexity? –Language? –Some peculiar type of memory? –All of these?

6. A Hard Problem Really what we’re asking is: What is it about our brains that makes us conscious?

7. A Hard Problem Neuroscientists have deferred some of the difficulties of that problem by focusing on a subtly different one: What neural processes are distinctly associated with consciousness? –That is still a pretty hard problem! What are the neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)

8. Searching for the NCC When a visual stimulus appears: –Visual neurons tuned to aspects of that stimulus fire action potentials (single unit recording) –Ensemble depolarizations of pyramidal cells in various parts of visual cortex (and elsewhere) (ERP, MEG) –Increased metabolic demand ensues in various parts of the visual cortex (and elsewhere) (fMRI, PET) –A conscious visual even occurs

9. Searching for the NCC We can measure all sorts of neural correlates of these processes…so we can see the neural correlates of consciousness right? So what’s the problem?

10. Searching for the NCC We can measure all sorts of neural correlates of these processes…so we can see the neural correlates of consciousness right? So what’s the problem? Not all of that neural activity “causes” consciousness We will explore some situations in which neural activity is dissociated from awareness

11. Dorsal and Ventral Pathways But first recall some details about visual pathways

12. Dorsal and Ventral Pathways –do both of these pathways equally contribute their “contents” to visual awareness? V4 V5

13. Agnosia Goodale and Milner – Patient DF Patient could not indicate the orientation of a slot using her awareness Patient could move her hand appropriately to interact with the slot –whether visually guided or guided by an internal representation in memory

14. Blindsight

15. Lesions of Retinostriate Pathway Lesions (usually due to stroke) cause a region of blindness called a scotoma Identified using perimetry note macular sparing X

16. Retinocollicular Pathway independently mediates orienting Rafal et al. (1990) subjects move eyes to fixate a peripheral target in two different conditions: –target alone

17. Retinocollicular Pathway independently mediates orienting Rafal et al. (1990) subjects move eyes to fixate a peripheral target in two different conditions: –target alone –accompanied by distractor

18. Retinocollicular Pathway independently mediates orienting Rafal et al. (1990) result Subjects were slower when presented with a distracting stimulus in the scotoma (359 ms vs. 500 ms)

19. Searching for the NCC What is needed is a situation in which a perceiver’s state can alternate between aware and unaware in ways that we can correlate with neural events One such situation is called Binocular Rivalry

20. Rivalrous Images A rivalrous image is one that switches between two mutually exclusive percepts

21. Binocular Rivalry What would happen if each eye receives incompatible input? Left EyeRight Eye

22. Binocular Rivalry What would happen if each eye receives incompatible input? The percept is not usually the amalgamation of the two images. Instead the images are often rivalrous. –Percept switches between the two possible images

23. Binocular Rivalry Rivalry does not entail suppression of one eye and dominance of another – it is based on parts of objects: Left EyeRight Eye Stimuli: Percept:Or

24. Binocular Rivalry Percept alternates randomly (not regularly) between dominance and suppression - on the order of seconds –What factors affect dominance and suppression? Time ->

25. Binocular Rivalry Percept alternates randomly (not regularly) between dominance and suppression - on the order of seconds –What factors affect dominance and suppression? –Several features tend to increase the time one image is dominant (visible) Higher contrast Brighter Motion

26. Binocular Rivalry Percept alternates randomly (not regularly) between dominance and suppression - on the order of seconds –What factors affect dominance and suppression? –Several features tend to increase the time one image is dominant (visible) Higher contrast Brighter Motion What are the neural correlates of Rivalry?

27. Neural Correlates of Rivalry What Brain areas “experience” rivalry? Clever fMRI experiment by Tong et al. (1998) –Exploit preferential responses by different regions –Present faces and buildings in alternation

28. Neural Correlates of Rivalry What Brain areas “experience” rivalry? Clever fMRI experiment by Tong et al. (1998) –Exploit preferential responses by different regions –Present faces to one eye and buildings to the other

29. Neural Correlates of Rivalry What Brain areas “experience” rivalry? Apparently activity in areas in ventral pathway correlates with awareness But at what stage is rivalry first manifested? For the answer we need to look to single-cell recording

30. Neural Correlates of Rivalry Neurophysiology of Rivalry –Monkey is trained to indicate which of two images it is perceiving (by pressing a lever) –One stimulus contains features to which a given recorded neuron is “tuned”, the other does not –What happens to neurons when their preferred stimulus is present but suppressed?

31. Neural Correlates of Rivalry The theory is that Neurons in the LGN mediate Rivalry

32. Neural Correlates of Rivalry The theory is that Neurons in the LGN mediate Rivalry NO – cells in LGN respond similarly regardless of whether their input is suppressed or dominant

33. Neural Correlates of Rivalry V1? V4? V5? YES – cells in primary and early extra-striate cortex respond with more action potentials when their preferred stimulus is dominant relative to when it is suppressed However, –Changes are small –Cells never stop firing altogether

34. Neural Correlates of Rivalry Inferior Temporal Cortex (Ventral Pathway)? YES – cells in IT are strongly correlated with percept

35. Neural Correlates of Rivalry Inferior Temporal Cortex (Ventral Pathway)? YES – cells in IT are strongly correlated with percept Why does area IT sound familiar to you?

36. Neural Mechanisms of Consciousness? So how far does that get us? Not all that far – we still don’t know what is the mechanism that causes consciousness But we do know that it is probably distributed rather than at one locus Thus the question is: what is special about the activity of networks of neurons that gives rise to consciousness? – that’s still a very hard problem