2. Problem Solving What is a problem? How do we go about solving problems? How can we be better problem-solvers?

3. What is a Problem? A problem occurs when there is a difference between a goal and the present state and it is not immediately obvious how to reach the goal

4. The Nine-Dot Problem

5. Connect all nine dots Draw no more than four straight lines You may not lift your pen from the paper

6. start One Solution

7. Another Solution

8. Restructuring Restructuring the mental representation of the problem can lead to a solution Insight occurs when the problem is restructured and the solution becomes clear (Metcalfe & Wiebe, 1987)

9. Gestalt Psychology: Insight Kohler (1925) - chimpanzees showed insight in problem solving

11. Restructuring Functional fixedness is the tendency to see only familiar uses for objects The “candle problem” was solved more often when the problem was restructured (Duncker, 1945) Mental set is a tendency to respond based on past experience – e.g., water jar problem (Luchins, 1942)

13. Adamson (1952)

17. Luchins (1942)

19. Means-End Analysis Compare the goal to the initial state, then create subgoals to reach the solution (Newell & Simon, 1972) Understanding the initial state is often the hardest part, e.g., mutilated checkerboard problem (Kaplan & Simon, 1990)

21. Use of Analogies Use the solution to a similar problem to solve a current problem Steps (Gick & Holyoak, 1983): Notice the relationship between the source problem and target problem Map corresponding parts of the problems Generate a parallel solution

22. Use of Analogies A solution is more likely when the person has a good problem schema (Gick & Holyoak, 1983) A schema can be induced by: Providing multiple examples Giving hints

23. How Experts Solve Problems Organize knowledge – experts recognize patterns better, but only in their own fields (Chase & Simon, 1973; Bedard & Chi, 1992) Categorize problems in terms of principles, not surface characteristics (Chi et al., 1981)

24. Creativity Investment Theory: creative people buy low and sell high (Sternberg & Lubart, 1996): Increasing Creativity (Hayes, 1978): Develop a knowledge base Remove inhibitions Look for analogies

25. Evolutionary Psychology What types of problems are humans best adapted to solve? What types of problems do modern humans face?