1. Networks, TCP/IP, and Network- Based attacks Lesson 2

2. Review Is an ROI from Security Possible?  Security as an ROI  Improved Security ROI  Security that provides savings in the budget  Security that provides additional revenue

3. Computer System Basics  Operating Systems Manage the computer’s resources –Memory management –Scheduling –Access Controls Lots of different operating systems –Win9X, Win2K, WinME, NT, Unix, Linux, VMS

4. Networks  What is a network? Two or more systems connected together LAN (local area network) WAN (Wide area network) MAN (metropolitan area network)

5. Network Topologies  Topology – the physical arrangement of the network. Completely Connected Star Ring Bus  Characteristics # of connections # of “hops” Addition of new nodes Fairness Collisions and points of failure

6. Network Topologies ?

7. Network Topologies -- Star Adv: distance = 2 hops connections = n-1 DisAdv: 1 point of failure Fairness? Addition of new nodes? Congestion(collisions)?

8. Network Topologies -- Ring Adv: avg dist = (n-1)/2 hops connections = n DisAdv: many points of failure Fairness (token)? Addition of new nodes? Congestion(collisions)?

9. Network Topology -- Bus Adv: distance = 1 hop connections = n DisAdv: Collisions Fairness? Addition of new nodes?

10. Protocols  A protocol is an agreed upon format for exchanging information.  A protocol will define a number of parameters: Type of error checking Data compression method Mechanisms to signal reception of a transmission  There are a number of protocols that have been established in the networking world.

11. OSI Reference Model  ISO standard describing 7 layers of protocols Application: Program-level communication Presentation: Data conversion functions, data format, data encryption Session: Coordinates communication between endpoints. Session state maintained for security. Transport: end-to-end transmission, controls flow of data Network: routes data from one system to the next Data Link: Handles physical passing of data between nodes Physical: Manages the transmission media/HW connections  Abstraction is the principle, you only have to communicate with the layer directly above and below

12. TCP/IP Protocol Suite  TCP/IP refers to two network protocols used on the Internet: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Internet Protocol (IP)  TCP and IP are only two of a large group of protocols that make up the entire “suite”  A “real-world” application of the layered concept.  There is not a one-to-one relationship between the layers in the TCP/IP suite and the OSI Model.

13. OSI and TCP/IP comparison OSI Model Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-link Physical TCP/IP Protocol Suite NFS FTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTPSMB HTTP, NNTP RPC TCP,UDP IPICMP ARP Physical Application-level protocols Network-level protocols

14. TCP/IP Protocol Suite User Process User Process User Process User Process TCPUDP IP HW Interface RARPARP ICMPIGMP Media

15. Encapsulation of data User Data Appl header Application data TCP header Application data TCP header IP header Application data TCP header IP header Ethernet header Ethernet trailer Ethernet Frame IP Datagram TCP segment application TCP IP Ethernet driver Ethernet

16. Demultiplexing of a received Ethernet Frame application UDPTCP ICMPIGMP IP ARPRARP Ethernet driver Incoming Frame

17. IP Datagram 32 Bits Source Address Destination Address Time-to-live Protocol Header Checksum Version head lngth Type of Service Total Length Identification Flags Frag Offset Options (if any) Data

18. TCP Packet Structure 32 Bits Source Port Destination Port Sequence Number Acknowledgment Number Options (if any) Data Window Data Offset Reserved Flags Checksum Urgent Pointer TCP establishes a “virtual circuit” between client and server.

19. Establishment of a TCP connection (“3-way Handshake”) client Server SYN Client sends connection request, Specifying a port to connect to On the server. client Server SYN/ACK Server responds with both an acknowledgement and a queue for the connection. client Server ACK Client returns an acknowledgement and the circuit is opened.

20. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) UDP is a connectionless transport layer protocol that provides no reliability and has no mechanism for connection establishment or termination. UDP makes no guarantee about packet delivery. This “fire and forget” nature means a packet is placed on the network and you just hope it gets to where it was supposed to go to. UDP is commonly used for network services that are not sensitive to an occasional lost (dropped) packet. Because of the relative overall reliability of the network, it has become less important to have a guaranteed service and thus UDP is a good choice for many streaming services.

21. Application Protocols  HTTP – HyperText Transfer Protocol  FTP – File Transfer Protocol  Telnet – A terminal communications facility  SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol  SSH – Secure SHell

22. Common Ports  Common Ports used to facilitate communication between common protocols HTTP: TCP port 80 Telnet: TCP port 23 FTP: TCP port 20 and 21 SMTP: TCP port 25 SSH: TCP port 22 DNS: UDP and TCP port 53

23. Routing  The overall process of delivering a packet from point A to point B.  It is the job of the router to know where to send a packet in order to reach its destination  Routing tables are used to determine where to send a packet. Static: entries entered once and not updated Routing Information Protocol (RIP): entire tables shared on a periodic basis. Not very efficient or secure. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): Table maintained to determine what the shortest path is to specific destinations. Tremendous overhead. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): Peer routers (neighbors) exchange routing information. Entire table initially loaded but subsequent changes limited to updates.

24. IP Addressing  We’re all familiar with the concept of URL’s and IP addresses, we’ve been using them for a while. We normally like to recall the URL, not the IP address but the network requires the address, DNS (Domain Name Service) solves this problem for us. When you use a site’s name, your computer will send a DNS query to your local DNS server, if it knows the address it will return it otherwise it will send a query to a higher-level domain server, which may forward the query further up and so forth until the address is obtained.  There are two basic ways to assign an IP address to a computer: Static – a specific address is assigned to a specific system and stays with it DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) – a dynamic addressing scheme that allows us to allocate IP addresses on a first-come, first-served basis. When a device connects to the network, it queries a DHCP server to obtain an IP address from a range of addresses. If the server runs out of addresses, the requestor is out of luck. –Method allows for more people to access the network without using as many addresses

25. Network Address Translation (NAT)  There are a limited number of IP addresses available and not every system needs one.  NAT was developed to provide a means to translate private IP addresses into public IP addresses. A device (typically a router or firewall) will accomplish this translation process. Source: 10.1.1.123 Destination: 207.25.71.23 Source: 63.69.110.110 Destination: 207.25.71.23 Source: 207.25.71.23 Destination: 10.1.1.123 Source: 207.25.71.23 Destination: 63.69.110.110 Firewall performs NAT

26. Network Address Translation A modern NAT gateway must change the Source address on every outgoing packet to be its single public address. It therefore also renumbers the Source Ports to be unique, so that it can keep track of each client connection. The NAT gateway uses a port mapping table to remember how it renumbered the ports for each client's outgoing packets. The port mapping table relates the client's real local IP address and source port plus its translated source port number to a destination address and port. The NAT gateway can therefore reverse the process for returning packets and route them back to the correct clients. When any remote server responds to an NAT client, incoming packets arriving at the NAT gateway will all have the same Destination address, but the destination port number will be the unique Source Port number that was assigned by the NAT. The NAT gateway looks in its port mapping table to determine which "real“ client address and port number a packet is destined for, and replaces these numbers before passing the packet on to the local client.

27. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) ICMP uses the IP datagram delivery facility to send its messages. IP Header ICMP message 20 bytes (contents -- depends on type and code) 8-bit type 8-bit code 16-bit checksum The format for the ICMP message is as follows: ICMP performs the following control, error reporting, and informational Functions for TCP/IP: - Flow Control - Detecting unreachable destinations - Redirecting routes - Checking remote hosts (e.g. ping)

28. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) TypeCodeMessage 00Echo Reply 30Net Unreachable 31Host Unreachable 33Port Unreachable 51Host Redirect 80Echo Request 110Time-to-live exceeded 130Timestamp Request 140Timestamp Reply

29. Typical Net-based Attacks -- Web  “Popular” and receives a great deal of media attention.  Attempt to exploit vulnerabilities in order to: Access sensitive data (e.g. credit card #’s) Deface the web page Disrupt, delay, or crash the server Redirect users to a different site

30. Typical Net-based attacks -- Sniffing  Essentially eavesdropping on the network  Takes advantage of the shared nature of the transmission media.  Passive in nature (i.e. just listening, not broadcasting)  The increased use of switching has made sniffing more difficult (less productive) but has not eliminated it (e.g. DNS poisoning will allow you to convince target hosts to send traffic to us intended for other systems)

31. Typical Net-Based Attacks – Spoofing, Hijacking, Replay  Spoofing attacks involve the attacker pretending to be someone else.  Hijacking involves the assumption of another systems role in a “conversation” already taking place.  Replay occurs when the attacker retransmits a series of packets previously sent to a target host.

32. Typical Net-Based Attacks – Denial of Service  DOS and Distributed DOS (DDOS) attacks have received much attention in the media in the last year due to some high-profile attacks.  Several varieties: Flooding – sending more data than the target can process Crashing – sending data, often malformed, designed to disable the system or service Distributed – using multiple hosts in a coordinated attack effort against a target system.

33. IPv4 versus IPv6  From the IPv6 FAQ, what are the merits of IPv6? scalability :IPv6 uses 128bit address space. Address length is 4 times longer than IPv4. security :IPv6 basic specification includes security. It includes packet encryption (ESP:Encapsulated Security Payload) and source authentication (AH:Authentication Header). [ confidentiality and authentication ] real-time :To support real-time traffic such as video conference, IPv6 has "Flow Label". Using flow label, routers can know which end-to-end flow a packet belongs to, and then find out the packet which belongs to real-time traffic. [ needed to allow for prioritization of traffic ] autoconfiguration :IPv6 basic specification includes address autoconfiguration. So, even a novice user can connect their machine to network. specification optimization :IPv6 keeps good parts and discards old and useless parts of IPv4.

34. IP Security (IPSEC)  Optional in IPv4, supported in IPv6.  Two major modes: Tunnel : encrypts both the data and header portions of the packet. Transport : encrypts the data portion of the packet.  Requires both ends to be using IPSEC (obviously, since one end will encrypt, the other needs to be able to decrypt).

35. About IPSEC (from the IPSEC FAQ)  IPsec = AH + ESP + IPcomp + IKE IPsec consists of a couple of separate protocols, listed below: – Authentication Header (AH): provides authenticity guarantee for packets, by attaching strong crypto checksum to packets. If you receive a packet with AH and the checksum operation was successful, you can be sure about two things :  The packet was originated by the expected peer. The packet was not generated by an impersonator.  The packet was not modified in transit. – Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP): provides confidentiality guarantee for packets, by encrypting packets with encryption algorithms. If you receive a packet with ESP and successfully decrypted it, you can be sure that the packet was not wiretapped in the middle. – IP payload compression (IPcomp): ESP provides encryption service to the packets. However, encryption tends to negatively impact compression on the wire. IPcomp provides a way to compress packets before encryption by ESP (Of course, you can use IPcomp alone if you wish to). – Internet Key Exchange (IKE): AH and ESP need shared secret keys between peers. For communication between distant locations, we need to provide ways to negotiate keys in secrecy. IKE will make this possible.

36. Ethernet  The most common physical layer protocol.  A shared media protocol, collisions possible Uses CSMA/CD to control traffic  Several different variations of Ethernet exist 10Base-2 : Thinnet (thin coax) 10Base-5: Thicknet (earliest version, thick coax) 10Base-T: Standard twisted pair Ethernet 100Base-T: Fast Ethernet 1000Base-T: Gigabit Ethernet

37. Summary  What is the Importance and Significance of this material?  How does this topic fit into the subject of “Voice and Data Security”?