1. The how and why of information flow in living things.
Microbial Genetics
The how and why of information flow in living things.
What exactly is living?
Interesting argicle on the results of transformation.
Nick

2. Genetics Terms Genome: Chromosome Gene Base pair Genetic code Genotype
Phenotype
The sum total of information carried by a cell, consists of chromosomes and extra chromosomal information
Chromosome: The large DNA molecule of a bacterial cell that contains all the information/plans for the cell.
Gene: a segment of DNA and its sequence of nucleotides that codes for a functional product, usually but not always a protein.
Base pair: In the double helix structure each rung of this twisted latter is made of 2 nucleotides either AT or GC, These complementary base pairs make the replication of DNA possible. Each strand serves as a template for the other strand.
Genetic code: the linear sequence of nucleotides that codes for specific RNA’s and proteins. For proteins each set of 3 nucleotides codes for a specific amino acid within the protein.
Genotype: the genetic composition of an organism, its entire complement of DNA.
Phenotype: the expression of an organisms genes: the protein of the cell and the properties they confer on the organism.

3. The Polymers of life Define Polymer Define Monomer
What are the polymers of life?
Why use polymers?
Polymer: a molecule consisting of a sequence of similar molecules, or monomers.
Monomer: One of something, molecules of similar structure that are combined together to make a polymer.
Polymers of life are: Proteins, Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates and lipids
Why use polymers? The use of polymers allows cells to create incredibly complex molecules with complex functions with out having to create a multitude of different materials. Like the English language that is made up of about 26 sounds (Yes I know there are more). But the amount of information that is contained in our language and our communication is generated by those 26 sound.

4. Determine Relatedness
Clinical Focus, p. 223 4

5. Determine Relatedness
Which strain is more closely related to the Uganda strain?
Strain
% Similar to Uganda
Kenya
71%
U.S.
51% 5

6. The genetic Code Name the monomers that make up the genetic code.
Name the monomers that make up Proteins
A,G,T,C
20 amino acids make up the proteins

7. What is the flow of genetic information in the bacterial cell?
Verb
Enzyme
Substrate
Product
Replication: DNA Polymerase: DNA: DNA
Transcription: RNA polymerase: DNA: RNA
Translation: Ribosome's and various: RNA: Protein
Reverse transcription: reverse transcriptase: RNA: DNA

8. Genetic Map of the Chromosome of E. coli
Figure 8.1b 8

9. The Flow of Genetic Information
Figure 8.2 9

10. DNA Replication The double strand of DNA is separated.
DNA polymerase reads the DNA strand and creates another.
The newly synthesized DNA contains an old strand and a new strand.
The two new strands are then separated into the two new daughter cells.

11. Semiconservative Replication
Figure 8.3a 11

12. DNA Synthesis
Figure 8.4 12

13. DNA Synthesis DNA is copied by DNA polymerase In the 5'  3' direction
Initiated by an RNA primer
Leading strand is synthesized continuously
Lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously
Okazaki fragments
RNA primers are removed and Okazaki fragments joined by a DNA polymerase and DNA ligase 13

14. Transcription A sequence of DNA is relaxed and opened up.
RNA polymerase synthesizes a strand of RNA
RNA uses ACGU
Starting point is a promoter

15. Transcription
Figure 8.7 15

16. The Process of Transcription
Figure 8.7 16

17. Translation mRNA associates with ribosome's (rRNA and protein)
3-base segments of mRNA specify amino acids and are called codons.
Genetic code: relationship among nucleotide sequence and corresponding DNA sequence.

18. Degenerate: Most amino acids are code for by more than one codon.
64 codons
3 are nonsense
Start codon Aug is for methionine.
See the codon sequence.

19. The Genetic Code
Figure 8.8 19

20. Simultaneous Transcription & Translation
Figure 8.10 20

21. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 21

22. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 22

23. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 23

24. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 24

25. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 25

26. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 26

27. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 27

28. The Process of Translation
Figure 8.9 28

29. Info From information storage to reality.
What determines what info is used
What determines how information is moved about.

30. Regulation Constitutive genes are expressed at a fixed rate
Other genes are expressed only as needed
Repressible genes
Inducible genes
Catabolite repression 30

31. Operon
ANIMATION Operons: Overview
Figure 8.12 31

32. Induction
Figure 8.12 32

33. Induction
Figure 8.12 33

34. Repression
Figure 8.13 34

35. Repression ANIMATION Operons: Induction ANIMATION Operons: Repression
Figure 8.13 35

36. Catabolite Repression
(a) Growth on glucose or lactose alone
(b) Growth on glucose and lactose combined
Figure 8.14 36

37. Lactose present, no glucose Lactose + glucose present
Figure 8.15 37

38. Types of Bacterial sex Name Process What it is Comments
What is sex and why is it important?
Transformation: naked DNA is transferred between cells.
Conjugation: F+ and f- cells.
Transduction: phage used to move DNA about.
Plasmids and Transposes.

39. Genetic Recombination
The rearrangement of genes.
Crossing over is where genes are recombined within a chromosome.

41. Transformation Naked DNA is transferred from one bacteria to another.
Was the first experiment that showed DNA was the genetic information

42. Genetic Recombination
Figure 8.25 42

43. Genetic Transformation
ANIMATION Transformation
Figure 8.24 43

44. Conjugation
DNA transferred from one bacteria to another by a sex pillus.
Information of transfer coded by a plasmid called F+
Hfr cells occur when F+ plasmid goes into the host chromosome and recombines, it will then draw across the DNA.

45. Bacterial Conjugation
Figure 8.26 45

46. Conjugation in E. coli
Figure 8.27a 46

47. Conjugation in E. coli
Figure 8.27b 47

48. Conjugation in E. coli
Figure 8.27c 48

49. Transduction
DNA is passed from one bacterium to another in a bacteriophage and put into recipients DNA.

50. Transduction by a Bacteriophage
Figure 8.28 50

51. Alternate forms of the chromosome format.
Plasmids: self replicating circular molecules of NDA
Transposes: small segments of DNA that can move into different parts of the genome.
Can these have an effect on Evolution?

52. Control of gene expression
Repression
Induction

54. The Operon Model of gene expression
Repression: regulatory mechanism inhibits gene expression
Induction: a process that turn on gene expression

55. Repressible Operon

56. Inducible operon

57. Where are the points of control

58. If a cell has all the genes that are needed then why are they not expressed at one time?

60. Mutations
What are they?

61. Mutations
What can they do

62. Mutation A change in the genetic material
Mutations may be neutral, beneficial, or harmful
Mutagen: Agent that causes mutations
Spontaneous mutations: Occur in the absence of a mutagen 62

63. Mutation Base substitution (point mutation) Change in one base
Missense mutation
Change in one base
Result in change in amino acid
Figure 8.17a, b 63

64. Mutation Nonsense mutation Results in a nonsense codon Figure 8.17a, c64

65. Mutation Frameshift mutation
Insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotide pairs
Figure 8.17a, d 65

66. The Frequency of Mutation66

67. Chemical Mutagens
Figure 8.19a 67

68. Radiation
Ionizing radiation (X rays and gamma rays) causes the formation of ions that can react with nucleotides and the deoxyribose-phosphate backbone 68

69. Radiation
UV radiation causes thymine dimers
Figure 8.20 69

70. Repair Photolyases separate thymine dimers Nucleotide excision repair
Figure 8.20 70

71. Selection
Positive (direct) selection detects mutant cells because they grow or appear different
Negative (indirect) selection detects mutant cells because they do not grow
Replica plating 71

72. Replica Plating
Figure 8.21 72

73. Ames Test for Chemical Carcinogens
Figure 8.22 73

76. The old and new genetics
Screening and selection of mutants

78. What do you think we would call the new genetics?