2. Eastern United States Deciduous Forests Presented by: John Girard

3. Table of Contents Definition Definition Distribution Distribution Physiognomy Physiognomy Functions Functions Ecosystem threats Ecosystem threats Conclusion Conclusion Questions? Questions?

4. Definition de·cid·u·ous a a a adj. Temporary or tending to fall off Deciduous forests exist in areas of mild temperatures (-30˚C to 30˚C) and where the mean annual rainfall is between 75 – 150 cm

5. Global Distribution Deciduous Forests are found in: Eastern North America Eastern North America Europe Europe Southeastern Russia Southeastern Russia China China Japan Japan

6. Eastern United States Deciduous Forest Distribution Temperature decreases in higher lattitudes Climate becomes drier in midwestern states

7. Deciduous Forest Physiognomy (Association = Climax Units) Mixed Mesophytic Mixed Mesophytic Western Mesophytic Western Mesophytic Oak - Hickory Oak - Hickory Oak - Chestnut Oak - Chestnut Oak – Pine Oak – Pine Southeastern Evergreen Southeastern Evergreen Beech – Maple Beech – Maple Maple – Basswood Maple – Basswood Hemlock – White Pine – Northern Hardwood Hemlock – White Pine – Northern Hardwood

8. Forest Distribution Boreal/ Spruce-Fir GrasslandOak-Hickory Hemlock-White Pine- Northern Hardwoods Maple-BasswoodBeech-Maple Western Mesophytic Mixed Mesophytic Oak-ChestnutOak-Pine Southeastern Evergreen Subtropical

9. Why are the associations different? Differences in vegetation result from:  Topography  Elevation  Temperature  Moisture  Light  Soil type

10. Slope Orientation Changes Microclimate Northern slopes have: Lower air and soil temperatures Lower air and soil temperatures A smaller vapor pressure deficit, which is a measure of water availability and evaporation A smaller vapor pressure deficit, which is a measure of water availability and evaporation Less ambient light Less ambient light

11. Soil Types Xeric = Dry Mesic = moderately moist

12. Humus Deciduous forests contain rich soils with a layer of humus Deciduous forests contain rich soils with a layer of humus Humus forms from the decay of forest litter Humus forms from the decay of forest litter Detritus prevents sudden changes in temperature protecting root structures Detritus prevents sudden changes in temperature protecting root structures

13. Mixed Mesophytic Association Mesophytic : being adapted to a moderately moist environment Soil: Mesic and well drained Dominant Species: BBBBeech TTTTulip poplar BBBBasswood SSSSugar maple SSSSweet buckeye CCCChestnut* RRRRed oak WWWWhite oak HHHHemlock

14. Western Mesophytic Association Soil: Mesic Dominant Species:  Oak  Hickory  Tulip poplar  Beech  Chestnut*

15. Oak – Hickory Association Soil: Xeric Dominant Species:  Oak  Hickory

16. Oak – Chestnut Association Soil: Mesic to xeric Dominant Species:  White oak  Chestnut*  Red oak  Chestnut oak  Tulip poplar

17. Oak – Pine Association Soil: Xeric red and yellow clays Dominant Species:  White oak  Hickory  Loblolly pine  Yellow pine

18. Southeastern Evergreen Association Soil Type: Xeric red clay which is poorly aerated and nutrient deficient Dominant species: Northern Region:  White oak  Hickory Southern Region:  Loblolly pine  Yellow pine

19. Beech – Maple Association Soil: Mesic and well drained Dominant Species:  Beech  Sugar Maple

20. Maple – Basswood Association Soil: Mesic and well drained Dominant Species:  Sugar  Sugar Maple  Basswood  Red  Red oak

21. Hemlock – White Pine – Northern Hardwood Association Soil: Mesic to xeric Dominant Species:  Sugar maple  Beech  Basswood  Yellow birch  Hemlock  White pine  Red pine  Red spruce

22. Layers of the Deciduous Forest Canopy (5+ m) Canopy (5+ m) Understory (0-5m) Understory (0-5m)

23. Functions Carbon storage (Influx of CO 2 ) Carbon storage (Influx of CO 2 ) Mineral storage (K, Ca, Mg, P, N) Mineral storage (K, Ca, Mg, P, N) Photosythesizers (Producers) Photosythesizers (Producers) Soil formation Soil formation Prevent soil erosion Prevent soil erosion Provide habitat for fauna Provide habitat for fauna Provide carbohydrates for fauna Provide carbohydrates for fauna

25. Coarse Woody Debris Dynamics in Two Old-Growth Ecosystems Mark E. Harmon and Chen Hua Bioscience Vol. 41(9) October 1991 Coarse woody debris: Potentially stores large amounts of carbon in forest ecosystems Potentially stores large amounts of carbon in forest ecosystems Reduce soil erosion Reduce soil erosion Store nutrients and water Store nutrients and water Serve as seedbeds Serve as seedbeds Provide habitats for decomposers and fauna Provide habitats for decomposers and fauna

26. Coarse Woody Debris Dynamics in Two Old-Growth Ecosystems Mark E. Harmon and Chen Hua Comparison of an old growth deciduous forest in China and an old growth coniferous forest in Oregon Compared:  Amount of coarse woody debris  Decay rates  Tree mortality

27. Coarse Woody Debris Dynamics in Two Old-Growth Ecosystems Mark E. Harmon and Chen Hua Findings: More coarse woody debris was found in the coniferous forest More coarse woody debris was found in the coniferous forest Decay rates were inversely proposional to amount of precipitation Decay rates were inversely proposional to amount of precipitation Low precipitation  High decay Low precipitation  High decay Deciduous trees have a higher mortality rate (1.22/yr vs 0.7/yr) Deciduous trees have a higher mortality rate (1.22/yr vs 0.7/yr)

28. Snags Snags provide habitat for forest fauna

29. Nutrient Translocation in the Outer Canopy and Understory of an Eastern Deciduous Forest R.J. Luxmoore T. Grizzard R.H. Strand Forest Science Vol. 27 (3) 1981 pg 505-518

30. Methods Data from earlier studies conducted on the foliar nutrient status of 10 eastern forest species and on throughfall leaching of four major communities of the eastern deciduous forest were used to calculate foliar nutrient translocation rates including adjustment for leaching losses. Data from earlier studies conducted on the foliar nutrient status of 10 eastern forest species and on throughfall leaching of four major communities of the eastern deciduous forest were used to calculate foliar nutrient translocation rates including adjustment for leaching losses. Tree foliage was collected with a shotgun from outer tree canopies and analyzed along with understory foliage and evergreens for nutrient concentrations Tree foliage was collected with a shotgun from outer tree canopies and analyzed along with understory foliage and evergreens for nutrient concentrations Chemical analysis after throughfall water was compared to seasonal mean nutrient concentrations Chemical analysis after throughfall water was compared to seasonal mean nutrient concentrations

31. Results  K and Ca had the highest leaching rate  Leaching is greater in autumn due to weathered and cracked leaf cuticles  Very high nutrient translocation rate for canopy deciduous species following bud burst and a late season flux back to the tree  During leaf senescence a significant return of nutrients from leaf to twig

32. Results Cont.  Phosphorus was translocated back to the trunk by the end of May; nitrogen was translocated back to the trunk by mid June  Nitrogen uptake from soil could account for only 25% of foliar nitrogen influx; nitrogen must be stored somehow inside the tree

33. Threats to Forest Ecosytem Invasive Invasive species of flora and fauna Fire Fire Logging Logging (Forest management) Human Human Developments Windfall Windfall Herbivory Herbivory

34. Invasive Species Compete for forest resources Water Water Light Light Space Space Nutrients Nutrients

35. Invasive Species List Pathogens Cryphonectria parasitica (Chestnut Blight) Phytophthora ramorum (Sudden Oak Death) Ophiostoma ulmi (Dutch Elm Disease) Mycoplasma like organism (Ash Yellows) Vines Celastrus orbiculatus (Oriental bittersweet) Pueraria montana (Kudzu) Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) Polygonum perfoliatum (Mile a minute weed) Trees or shrubs Ailanthus altissima (Tree of heaven) Berberis thunbergii (Japanese barberry)

36. Chestnut Blight Before the introduction of chestnut blight in 1904American chestnut Constituted 70% of the eastern deciduous forest basal area Within 40 years american chestnut represented less than 1% of the forest basal area

37. Pathogens, Patterns, and Processes in Forest Ecosystems Pathogens influence and are influenced by forest development and landscape characteristics Bioscience Vol. 45 (1) Jan. 1995 John D. Castello Donald J. Leopold Peter J. Smallidge

38. Findings Pathogens select less vigorous or genetically unfit individuals to incite disease causing tree mortality Pathogens select less vigorous or genetically unfit individuals to incite disease causing tree mortality Tree mortality can be large scale leading to secondary succession or small scale causing canopy gaps leading to secondary succession Tree mortality can be large scale leading to secondary succession or small scale causing canopy gaps leading to secondary succession Oak – Hickory forests have succeeded oak – chestnut Oak – Hickory forests have succeeded oak – chestnut

39. Findings Cont. Beech bark disease in New York lead to an increase of hemlock Beech bark disease in New York lead to an increase of hemlock Oak wilt in Wisconsin lead to a loss of red and black oak, which were replaced by sugar maple Oak wilt in Wisconsin lead to a loss of red and black oak, which were replaced by sugar maple Dutch elm disease resulted in a increase in shade tolerant species and an Illinois forest witnessed a 60% increase of sugar maple Dutch elm disease resulted in a increase in shade tolerant species and an Illinois forest witnessed a 60% increase of sugar maple

40. Findings Con’t. Pathogens affect forest fauna as the chestnut blight lowered mast (Nuts used as food) production, thereby lowering the diversity of fauna Pathogens affect forest fauna as the chestnut blight lowered mast (Nuts used as food) production, thereby lowering the diversity of fauna Forest management practices influence the effects of pathogens on forest structure e.g. fire supression prevents pathogen destruction, roads altering drainage patterns resulting in succession, etc… Forest management practices influence the effects of pathogens on forest structure e.g. fire supression prevents pathogen destruction, roads altering drainage patterns resulting in succession, etc… Disease is essential to ecological balance in the forest; pathogens increase tree mortality which facilitates succession Disease is essential to ecological balance in the forest; pathogens increase tree mortality which facilitates succession

41. Fire and the Development of Oak Forests In eastern North America, oak distribution reflects a variety of ecological paths and disturbance conditions Bioscience Vol. 42 (5) May 1992 Marc D. Abrams

42. Findings Paleoecology of eastern oak forests show a change from pine to oak domination coinciding with an increase in charcoal abundance Paleoecology of eastern oak forests show a change from pine to oak domination coinciding with an increase in charcoal abundance Fire favors oak species due to their thick bark, sprouting ability, resistance to rotting after scarring Fire favors oak species due to their thick bark, sprouting ability, resistance to rotting after scarring Periodic fire keeps succession in check as later successional species have low resistance to fire Periodic fire keeps succession in check as later successional species have low resistance to fire

43. Findings Con’t. Periodic fires resulted from lightning strikes and Indian activities e.g. cooking, heat, combating insects, killing woody vegetation, etc… Periodic fires resulted from lightning strikes and Indian activities e.g. cooking, heat, combating insects, killing woody vegetation, etc… Logging of White pine resulted in an increase of red oak from the understory Logging of White pine resulted in an increase of red oak from the understory Oak forests are being successionally replaced as oak seedlings are shade intollerant and are dominated by maple and black cherry seedlings Oak forests are being successionally replaced as oak seedlings are shade intollerant and are dominated by maple and black cherry seedlings

44. Logging Changes: Landscape structure Landscape structure Drainage patterns Drainage patterns Forest species diversity Forest species diversity Temperature and transpiration Temperature and transpiration Compaction and erosion of soil Compaction and erosion of soil Size of canopy gaps Size of canopy gaps Trampling of understory species Trampling of understory species Allows for invasive species to succeed Allows for invasive species to succeed Loss of habitats for fauna Loss of habitats for fauna

45. Slash Prevents Prevents soil erosion to minimize damage to surrounding flora

46. Human Developments New construction destroys forest New construction destroys forest Loss of flora and fauna Loss of flora and fauna

47. Windfall Occurs during storms Occurs during storms Allows for secondary succession and forest species variablility Allows for secondary succession and forest species variablility

48. Herbivory Can Can result in disease or death of tree

49. Conclusion Deciduous forests have varying physiognomy due to differences in climate, elevation, topography, and soil type Deciduous forests have varying physiognomy due to differences in climate, elevation, topography, and soil type Storage of minerals, production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis, prevention of soil erosion, and faunal habitats are all functions of Deciduous forests Storage of minerals, production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis, prevention of soil erosion, and faunal habitats are all functions of Deciduous forests Threats to the forest ecosystem include; invasive species, fire, logging, human developments, windfall, and herbivory Threats to the forest ecosystem include; invasive species, fire, logging, human developments, windfall, and herbivory

50. Questions ?

51. References Cited Abrams, Marc D. ; Fire and the Development of Oak Forests; Bioscience Vol. 42 (5) May 1992; 346-353 Barbour, Michael B., and Billings, William Dwight; North American Terrestrial Vegetation; Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom; 2000. 357-395 Braun, E. Lucy; Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America; Hafner Publishing Company, New York; 1967. 3-38

52. References Cited Cont. Castello, John D., Leopold, Donald J., and Smallidge, Peter J.; Pathogens, Patterns, and Processes in Forest Ecosystems; Bioscience Vol 45 (1) January 1995; 16-24 Harmon, Mark E.; Coarse Woody Debris Dynamics in Two Old-Growth Ecosystems; Bioscience Vol 41 (9) October 1991; 604-610 Luxmoore, R.J., Grizzard, T., and Strand, R.H.; Nutrient Translocation in the Outer Canopy of an Eastern Deciduous Forest; Forest Science Vol 27 (3) 1981; 505-518

53. References Cited Cont. Steinman, Jim; Changes in Composition of the Mixed Mesophytic Forest: Effects of Succession and Disturbance; http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/1381 ; 1999 http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/1381