1. Marxism Michael Lacewing enquiries@alevelphilosophy. co.uk

2. On ideology Political ideologies –Provide plan of action for creating political institutions –Seek to justify political arrangements –Bind individuals to society Freeden: ideologies are structured interpretations of political concepts

3. Political concepts Political concepts are ‘essentially contestable’ –E.g. liberty: absence of coercion, absence of interference, opportunity, autonomy, rational choice, self-determination… Two reasons for disagreement –Political concepts are evaluative –Component structure Different ideologies start from different key concepts, ‘decontesting’ them

4. Marxist theory of history We are alive –We produce our ‘means of subsistence’ Satisfying original needs leads to new needs, e.g. tools We reproduce Both production and reproduction are not only natural, but social, involving particular ‘modes’ of cooperating with others

5. Marxist theory of history Economic sub-structure (= modes of production + modes of cooperation) determines nature of society Modes change as society develops, esp. involving division of labour –Within the family –Mental v. physical –Agriculture v. commercial v. industrial Superstructure (= customs, laws, education, religion, culture, state institutions) evolves out of substructure

6. Marxist theory of history The state is based on power relations between classes –Modern state based on capitalism: capitalists own the means of production, and take profit, workers get salaries Power of dominant class supported by the state and by an ‘ideology’ –State is biased, not neutral –Ideas are product of sub-structure

7. Alienation Alienation: estrangement resulting in loss –From products of labour –From meaningful, creative work –From ‘species-being’ –From other people Alienation need not be conscious or felt, but life is objectively less fulfilling

8. Emancipation Liberal ideas of rights and justice are not emancipating, but alienating –Emphasis on individual rights (as basis for justice) in conflict with communal nature of human beings –Illusion of equality glosses over power differences between classes Genuine equality would abolish the state: a communist revolution

9. Five core concepts Equality: needs are met Welfare: fulfilment of species-being Importance of meaningful, creative work Community History: of sub-structure and super- structure

10. Marx on justice Marx does not call capitalism ‘unjust’ –Conflict not described in ‘liberal’ terms; communism is beyond justice –Capitalism is a necessary stage of human development –Argument is not primarily moral, but historical – social change will be driven by developments in sub-structure, not ideas

11. Objections Super-structure is not determined by sub- structure –State is partly independent of capitalism Prediction of communism turned out false, ‘welfare state’ developed, and classes evolved –But has this led to emancipation? Theory of human nature is wrong –What is necessary for human happiness to increase? Communism is impossible