2.  The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred languages which probably originated in Anatolia (Asiatic Turkey) and over centuries spread and developed into the languages of Europe, Anatolia and the Indian subcontinent. The Indo- European Language “tree” has about nine branches which represent divergences from the parent “Proto- Indo-European” language. These branches include Latin and the languages which developed from it like French and Spanish, Greek, Slavic and its descendents like Russian, Polish and Czech, Germanic and its descendents German, Dutch, English and the Scandinavian languages and the ancient language of India, Sanskrit and its descendents Hindi, Punjabi, Merathi, Urdu, Bengali and many other distinct languages found in the Northern Indian sub-continent.  The family is roughly divided into two groups. The feature that distinguished the two groups is the fact that words of similar structure and meaning in one group have an S sound and the equivalent in the other group has a hard C sound. For this reason, the two groups are designated according to the pronunciation of the word for the number 100 in Latin, representing the Western Group and Sanskrit, representing the Eastern Group:  Latin: centum  Sanskrit: satem  So a centum language belongs to the western branch (like Latin) and a satem language belongs to the eastern group (like Sanskrit).

5.  The Indo-European family of languages is spoken by approximately 3 billion native speakers, making it the largest group by far.  Of the 20 most-spoken languages in the world, 12 of these come from the Indo-European group:  Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Marathi, French, Italian, Punjabi and Urdu.  Together, these 12 account for more than 1.6 billion native speakers.  Although it is not spoken by the single biggest number of native speakers, English is the most widespread language in the world. It has become the lingua franca of the modern world.

6. Modern English is a hybrid language with influences on vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure from many languages it has come into contact with over the last 2000 years.

8.  ānenleofan  twātwelf  þrēo þrēo-tīene þrī-tig  fēower fēower-tīene fēower-tig fīf fīf-tīene fīf-tig  siex siex-tīene siex-tig  seofon seofon-tīene hund-seofon-tig eahta eahta eahta-tīene hund-eahta-tig  nigon nigon-tīenehund-nigon-tig  tīentwen-tig hund-tēon-tig hund-enleofon-tig (110)  þūsend

9.  Anglo-Saxon was once written using the runic alphabet (the Futhorc) but Church scribes began using an adapted Latin alphabet instead. The Anglo-Saxon Alphabet has three distinctive letters called ash, barred D and thorn. Vowels can be long or short. Long vowels are shown by a line above the letter. Two vowels together are always pronounced separately e.g. bread is pronounced bree-add, not bred as in Modern English. The letters sc together are always pronounced sh. G has 3 sounds: hard g, dg like in edge or if it has an e in front or behind it becomes a Y e.g. gear is pronounced like modern year.  aA æÆ bB cC dD ðÐ eE fF gG hH iI lL mM nN oO pP rR sS tT þÞ uU wW yY  You will also see there is no K, Q or V. The letters C, CW and F were used instead.

10.  The Colours  rēad geolo  grēne blǽw  brūn blǽc  hwīt purpu  The Interrogative Pronouns  hwā – who  hwelc – which  hwǽr – where  hwænne - when  hwǽt – what  hwý – why  hū - how  æcer – akkerbān – been –  belīfan – blijvenbinnan – binnen  bītan – bijtenblōd – bloed  brecan – brekenbremel – braam  brōþor – broerbuan – bouwen  bufan – bovenciele – kil  cīepan – kopencild – kind  cirice – kerkcnapa – knaap  cwic – kwikcyning – koning  cyne-rīce – koningrijkdǽd – daad  dǽlen – delendēaþ – dood  dēofol – duiveldēor – dier  dohtor – dochterdraca – draak  duru – deurēage – oog  ēare – oorearm – arm  earn – arendele – olie  ende – eindengel – engel  Engla-land – Engelandeorþe – aarde

11.  Present Simple Conjugation (regular):  ic binde wē bindaþ  þū bindes gē bindaþ  hē bindaþ hīe bindaþ   bēon – to be (usually used to state an indisputable fact)  ic bēo wē bēoþ  þū bist gē bēoþ  hē biþ hīe bēoþ   Seo lyft þone heo a-styred is, biþ wind.  wesan – to be (simple statements AND formation of passive and perfect tenses  ic eomþù earthē is  wē sindongē sindonhīe sindon  ic neom ne wē ne sindon ne  þù neart ne gē ne sindon ne  hē nis nehīe ne sindon ne  Wē sindon gecumene.  We (are) have come.  For þæm þæt land wæs eall gebūn.  because all the land was cultivated.  Ic neom ne eald.I am not old.  Notice double negative: ic neom ne   habban – to have / nabban – not to have  ic hæbbe wē habbaþ  þū hæfst gē habbaþ  hē hæfþ hīe habbaþ   ic næbbe ne wē nabbaþ ne  þū næfst ne gē nabbaþ ne  hē næfþ nehīe nabbaþ ne 

12.  berstan – barstenbēodan – biedenbindan – binden  biddan – bidden būgan – buigen ceosan – kiezen  cunnan – kunnendelfan – delven drincan – drinken  etan – etenfaran – reizen(varan)flēogan – vliegen  feallen – vallen fēohtan – vechtenfrignan – vragen  gān – gaanhealdan – houdenhelpan – helpen hātan – heten lǽnan – lenenlǽtan – laten  lecgan – leggenlicgan - liggenmacian – maken  magan – mogenmetan – meten motan – moeten  niman – nemenscieppan – scheppensculan – zullen  sēon – zien slēan – slaanspecan – spreken  stæppan – stappenwendan – wenden weorpan - werpen  willan – willenwitan – wetenworþan – worden  wyrcan – werken

13.  Be þǽre sunnan: Seo sunne gæþ betweonan heofone and eorþan: on dǽg bufan eorþan, and on niht under þisse eorþan. Æfre heo biþ niernende ymb þās eorþan, and ealswa leohte scinþ under þǽre eorþan on niht swa-swa heo on dǽg deþ bufan urum heafdum.  About the sun: The sun goes between heaven and earth: in the day above the earth, and in the night under the earth. Ever she is running around this earth, and so light shines under the earth in the night as it in the daytime does, over our heads.

14.  Be þǽre sunnan: Seo sunne gæþ betweonan heofone and eorþan: on dǽg bufan eorþan, and on niht under þisse eorþan. Æfre heo biþ niernende ymb þās eorþan, and ealswa leohte scinþ under þǽre eorþan on niht swa-swa heo on dǽg deþ bufan urum heafdum.  About the sun: The sun goes between heaven and earth: in the day above the earth, and in the night under the earth. Ever she is running around this earth, and so light shines under the earth in the night as it in the daytime does, over our heads.

15.  Be þære lyfte: Lyft is swiþe þynne. Seo ofer-gæþ ealne middangeard, and up-astigþ oþ þone monam. On þære fleogaþ fuglas swa-swa fiscas swimmaþ on wætere. Ne mihte hira nan fleogan, nære seo lyft þe hie bierþ. Seo lyft a-bierþ eall wolcnu and ealle stormas. Seo lyft þone heo a- styred is, biþ wind.  About the air. Air is very thin. It goes over all (the) earth, and rises up to the moon. In it fly fowls (birds) just as fishes swim in water. Nor might none of them fly if the air did not bear them. The air carries all the clouds and storms. The air, when it is stirred up, is wind.

16.  Ðu, ure Fæder, þe eart on heofonum, sy þyn nama gehalgod. Cume þin rice. Sy þin wylla on eorþan swa-swa on heofonum. Syle us to-dæg urne dæghwamlican hlaf. And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa- swa we forgyfaþ ðam þe wið us agyltaþ. And ne læd ðu na us on costnunge. Ac alys us fram yfele. Sy hit swa.  Our Father, that art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive is out trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation. And deliver us from evil. Be it so (Amen)

17.  Beowulf is the title of an Old English heroic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set in Scandinavia. It is commonly known as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature. Its composition by an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet is dated between the 8th and the early 11th century. It survives in a single manuscript known as the Nowell Codex, which was transcribed from a lost original by two different scribes in about 1000AD.  In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who has been attacking the resident warriors of the mead hall of Hroðgar, the king of the Danes; Grendel's mother; and an unnamed dragon. The last battle takes place later in life, Beowulf now being king of the Geats. In the final battle, Beowulf is fatally wounded. After his death his retainers bury him in a tumulus in Geatland.

19.  Anglo-Saxon poetry is known for two key features:  1. The poem relies on alliteration for its internal cohesion.  2, It makes use of literary devices called kennings which are a type of metaphor, intended to exaggerate the concept of the kenning. Kennings were used also in Scandinavian poetry (Icelandic, Norwegian and Danish) Their use is an example of the cultural interaction between Saxon England and the Vikings who paid frequent visits to the British Isles in the 9th and 10th centuries.  A kenning is a hyperbole, intended to exaggerate the heroic nature of the poem. Those used in Icelandic and Norse poetry tend to be complicated phrases whereas those used in Anglo- Saxon are simple, two-word compounds joined by a hyphen.  seġl-rād “sail-road”  swan-rād “swan-road”  Very rarely, a genitive structure is used:  heofones ġim “sky’s jewel” = “the sun”

20.  MeaningPoetical Kenning  axeblood-ember  battlespear-din  bearbeo wulf  bloodslaughter-dew  bloodbattle-sweat  bloodwound-sea  corpseraven harvest  deathsleep of the sword  death in battleflame-farewelled  firebane of wood  firesun of the houses  goldserpent's lair  amberFreya’s tears  honourmind's worth  hookbait-gallows  kill enemiesfeed the eagle  ravenswan of blood  MeaningPoetical Kenning  the seawhale-road  the seasail road  the seawhale's way  the seaswan-road  serpentvalley-trout  shieldheadland of swords  shipwave-steed  shipsea-steed  the sunsky-candle  the sunsky's jewel  swordblood-worm  swordicicle of blood  warweather of weapons  warriorfeeder of ravens  warriordestroyer of eagle’s hunger  windbreaker of trees  wolfGunn's horse

21.  A line of Anglo_Saxon poetry is written in two half-lines called distichs, separated by a heavy pause called a caesura. Each half-line has two stressed syllables.  Anglo-Saxon poetry does not rhyme. It relies instead on alliteration which is the repeating of sounds. Repeating vowel sounds is called assonance. Repeating consonant sounds is called consonance. Alliteration is all about SOUNDS and not the LETTERS themselves.  Each line in Beowulf has three alliterations. All vowel sounds alliterate with each other but certain consonant combinations do not: SP, ST and S do not, for example. Hard C and CH alliterate, as do hard G and Y (eg or ge).  The first half-line is called the on verse. The second half-line is called the off verse. The stressed syllables in the on verse usually alliterate with the first stressed syllable of the off verse. The second stressed syllable of the off verse does not usually alliterate. The alliterating sound is always the initial sound of a stressed syllable, not a word.  It is important to remember that the pronunciation of the sounds of English have changed over time and so the alliterations which were obvious to a Saxon may sometimes seem a little strange to a modern speaker.  The author of Beowulf is unknown. It was probably composed orally between the 8th and 11th centuries. The manuscript was written in the 11th century by two different scribes.

22.  þæt fram ham gefrægn Higelaces þegn, 195 god mid Geatum, Grendles dæda; se wæs moncynnes mægenes strengest on þæm dæge þysses lifes, æþele ond eacen. Het him yðlidan godne gegyrwan, cwæð, he guðcyning 200 ofer swanrade secean wolde, mærne þeoden, þa him wæs manna þearf. ðone siðfæt him snotere ceorlas lythwon logon, þeah he him leof wære; hwetton higerofne, hæl sceawedon. 205 Hæfde se goda Geata leoda cempan gecorone þara þe he cenoste findan mihte; XVna sum sundwudu sohte; secg wisade, lagucræftig mon, landgemyrcu. 210 Fyrst forð gewat. Flota wæs on yðum, bat under beorge. Beornas gearwe on stefn stigon; streamas wundon, sund wið sande; secgas bæron on bearm nacan beorhte frætwe, 215 guðsearo geatolic; guman ut scufon, weras on wilsið, wudu bundenne. Gewat þa ofer wægholm, winde gefysed, flota famiheals fugle gelicost, oðþæt ymb antid oþres dogores 220 wundenstefna gewaden hæfde þæt ða liðende land gesawon, brimclifu blican, beorgas steape, side sænæssas; þa wæs sund liden, eoletes æt ende. This heard in his home Hygelac's thane, great among Geats, of Grendel's doings. He was the mightiest man of valour in that same day of this our life, stalwart and stately. A stout wave-walker he bade make ready. Yon battle-king, said he, far o'er the swan-road he fain would seek, the noble monarch who needed men! The prince's journey by prudent folk was little blamed, though they loved him dear; they whetted the hero, and hailed good omens. And now the bold one from bands of Geats comrades chose, the keenest of warriors e'er he could find; with fifteen men the sea-wood 1 he sought, and, sailor proved, led them on to the land's confines. Time had now flown; 2 afloat was the ship, boat under bluff. On board they climbed, warriors ready; waves were churning sea with sand; the sailors bore on the breast of the bark their bright array, their mail and weapons: the men pushed off, on its willing way, the well-braced craft. Then moved o'er the waters by might of the wind that bark like a bird with breast of foam, till in season due, on the second day, the curved prow such course had run that sailors now could see the land, sea-cliffs shining, steep high hills, headlands broad. Their haven was found, their journey ended. 1 2