1. CHAPTER 6 SENSATION, PERCEPTION, AND ATTENTION

2. Learning Objective
What are the views of constructivists and nativists on the nature-nurture issue as it relates to sensation and perception?

3. Nature and Nurture
Constructivists – on the side of nurture
Argue that perceptions are constructed through learning
Nativists – on the side of nature
Argue that innate capabilities and maturational programs drive perceptual development and that perception does not require interpretation

4. Learning Objectives
How are perceptual abilities of infants assessed?
What are infants’ visual capabilities?
What sorts of things do infants prefer to look at?

5. The Infant – Assessing Sensory and Perceptual Abilities
The main methods used to study infant perception
Habituation
Preferential looking
Evoked potentials
Operant conditioning

6. The Infant – Assessing Sensory and Perceptual Abilities
Habituation
The process of learning to be bored with a stimulus
After repeated presentation with the same visual stimulus, the infant becomes bored and looks away
If a different stimulus is presented and the infant regains interest, researchers conclude that the infant has discriminated between the two stimuli
Habituation can be used to test for discrimination of stimuli by all the senses

7. The Infant – Assessing Sensory and Perceptual Abilities
Preferential looking
Researchers present an infant with two stimuli at the same time and measure the length of time the infant spends looking at each
A preference for one over the other indicates that the infant discriminates between the two stimuli

8. The Infant – Assessing Sensory and Perceptual Abilities
Evoked potentials
Researchers can assess how an infant’s brain responds to stimulation by measuring its electrical conductivity
Operant conditioning
Infants can learn to respond to a stimulus (to suck faster or slower or to turn the head) if they are reinforced for the response
Evoked potentials
Researchers can assess how an infant’s brain responds to stimulation by measuring its electrical conductivity.
Operant conditioning
Infants can learn to respond to a stimulus (to suck faster or slower or to turn the head) if they are reinforced for the response.
---To determine if an infant can determine whether infants can distinguish between two speech sounds:
- First, an infant might be conditioned over several trials to turn his head every time he hears a sound—perhaps by being shown an interesting toy or being given a taste of milk.
-Then, a second sound would be presented; if the infant turns his head, it suggests that the two sounds are perceived as equivalent; if the infant does not turn his head, you can conclude that the two sounds have been discriminated.

9. The Infant – Vision Basic visual capacities are present at birth
Can detect changes in brightness and can track a slow-moving object or picture
Visual acuity – ability to perceive detail
Optimal at about 8 inches from the face or if objects are boldly patterned with sharp light-dark contrasts
Visual accommodation – ability to focus on objects at different distances
Takes 6 months to 1 year before can see as well as an adult
Color vision present at birth
Color vision mature at 2 to 3 months

10. Caption: Eye chart

11. Caption: What the young eye sees

12. The Infant – Vision Infants’ visual preferences
Attracted to patterns that have light-dark transitions, or contour
Sharp boundaries between light and dark areas, such as offered by black and white objects
Attracted to displays that are dynamic – contain movement – rather than static
Can track a slow-moving object
Attracted to moderately complex patterns
Prefer clear patterns (checkerboard) to blank or complex stimuli
Prefer “top-heavy” patterns such as the human face

13. Caption: Visual scanning in early infancy

14. The Infant – Vision
Explanation of Martin Banks and colleagues for infants’ visual preferences: “Young infants prefer to look at whatever they can see well”
Seem to actively seek the visual input they can see well and that will stimulate the development of the visual centers of their brains
Around 2 or 3 months, a breakthrough begins to occur in the perception of forms
1-month-olds focus on the outer contours of forms such as faces (a person’s chin, hairline, top of the head)
Around 2 months, infants begin to explore the interiors of figures thoroughly (facial features)

15. The Infant – Vision Depth perception
Newborns appear to have size constancy
Recognition that an object is the same size despite changes in its distance from the eyes
Classic study to examine depth perception in infants using the visual cliff: Gibson & Walk (1960)
Most infants older than 6 ½ months crossed the “shallow” pattern but would not cross the “deep” or “cliff” pattern
Infants can perceive the cliff by 2 months
Most infants of crawling age (typically 7 months or older) clearly perceive depth and have learned to fear drop-offs

16. Caption: An infant on the edge of a visual cliff, being lured to cross the “deep” side

17. The Infant – Vision
Researchers have shown that 3-month-old infants can detect deviation from well-formed and symmetrical patterns
4-month-olds use common motion as an important cue in determining what is or is not part of the same object
Use “good form” to perceive an object’s unity or wholeness
Around 6 months of age, infants can determine the boundaries or edges of stationary objects
Conclusion is that infants have intuitive theories – organized systems of knowledge – that allow them to make sense of the world

18. What are the auditory capabilities of infants?
Learning Objectives
What are the auditory capabilities of infants?
What do researchers know about infants’ abilities to perceive speech?
What are the taste and smell capabilities of infants?
To what extent are infants sensitive to touch, temperature, and pain?

19. The Infant – Hearing
Basic capacities are present at birth
Can hear better than they can see
Can localize sounds
Can be startled by loud noises
Can turn toward soft sounds
Prefer relatively complex auditory stimuli
Can discriminate among sounds that differ in loudness, duration, direction, and frequency/pitch

20. The Infant – Hearing
Infants respond to human speech and prefer speech over non-speech sounds
Can discriminate basic speech sounds – phonemes
The pioneering research of Eimas (1975, 1985) demonstrated that infants could distinguish similar consonants (ba and pa) and vowels (a and i) and between standard and rarely heard sounds

21. The Infant – Hearing
Infants become increasingly sensitive to sound differences that are significant in their own language and become increasingly insensitive to sounds not made in their native language
Early auditory experiences shape the formation of synapses in the auditory areas of the brains and create optimal sensitivity to the sounds in the native language
Newborns attend to female voices and can recognize their mothers’ voices, even in utero

22. The Infant – Taste and Smell
Newborns can distinguish sweet, bitter, and sour tastes
Prefer sweet
Facial expressions reflect taste sensations
Olfaction – sensory receptors for smell – work well at birth
Will turn head away from unpleasant smells
All babies prefer the smell of human milk over formula, even if previously consumed formula
At 1 to 2 weeks, breast-fed babies can recognize the smell of their mother’s breasts or underarms

23. The Infant – Touch, Temperature, and Pain
The senses of touch and motion develop before birth
Sensitivity to tactile stimulation develops in a cephalocaudal direction
Touch soothes a fussy baby
Systematic massage helps premature infants to gain weight, be more relaxed, and develop more regular sleep patterns
Newborns are sensitive to warm and cold and to painful stimuli
Infants respond to pain and learn from the experience
The American Academy of Pediatricians recommend that newborn males be given local anesthesia at circumcision

24. Learning Objectives
To what extent can infants integrate their sensory experiences?
What is an example of cross-modal perception?
What role do early experiences play in development of perceptions?
What factors contribute to normal visual perception?

25. The Infant – Integrating Sensory Information
At birth, sensory functions are integrated
Newborns will look in the direction of the sound they hear and expect to feel objects they can see
Integration of the senses helps babies perceive and respond appropriately to the objects and people they encounter
Cross-modal perception is to recognize through one sense an object that is familiar through another sense
A fragile ability that researchers are challenged to demonstrate in infants
Continues to improve through childhood and adolescence

26. The Infant – Influences on Early Perceptual Development
Early perceptual development is evidence for nurture
Basic perceptual capacities appear to be innate or to develop rapidly in all normal infants
Research of Hubel and Torsten (1970) demonstrated the critical period for the development of vision in kittens: blindness resulted from deprivation of normal visual experiences for 8 weeks
Among humans, early experiences affect the development of vision during multiple sensitive periods
“. . . a window of time during which an individual is more affected by experience, and thus has a higher level of plasticity than at other times throughout life ”

27. The Infant – Influences on Early Perceptual Development
Sensory experience is vital in determining the organization of the developing brain
The visual system requires stimulation early in life to develop normally
Early visual deficits (i.e., congenital cataracts) can affect later visual perception
Exposure to auditory stimulation early in life affects the architecture of the developing brain and influences auditory perception skills

28. The Infant – The Infant’s Active Role
Gibson (1988) suggested that infants engage in three phases of exploratory behavior
From birth to 4 months, infants explore their immediate surroundings by looking and listening and especially by mouthing objects and watching them move
From 5 to 7 months, once infants can grasp, they explore objects with their hands as well as with their eyes
By 8 or 9 months, infants use crawling to extend their explorations into the larger environment and carefully examine an object by fingering it, poking it, and watching it

29. The Infant – The Infant’s Active Role
The combination of perception and action in exploratory behavior enables children to create sensory environments that meet their needs and contribute to their own development
They are able to attend selectively to the world around them and choose the forms and levels of stimulation that suit them best

30. The Infant – Cultural Variations
People from different cultures differ little in basic sensory capacities, such as the ability to discriminate degrees of brightness or loudness
However, perceptions and interpretations of sensory input can vary considerably across cultures
Cultural traditions affect opportunities for experiences, which in turn influences perceptual development

31. Learning Objectives
How does the development of attention occur during childhood?
What characterizes the developmental disorder attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
How is ADHD treated?

32. The Child
Sensory and perceptual development is largely complete at the end of infancy and becomes more refined during childhood
During childhood, sensory and perceptual development are largely a matter of children learning to use their senses more intelligently
Perceptual development and cognitive development are integrated

33. The Child – The Development of Attention
Perceptual development during childhood is the development of attention
The focusing of perception and attention upon something in particular
Infants are “captured by” something – they react to environmental events
They have an “orienting system”
Children are “directed toward” something
They have a focusing system that seeks out and maintains attention to events

34. The Child – Longer Attention Span
Children have short attention spans
In a study of sustained attention (Yendovitskaya, 1971),
Children ages 2 to 3 worked for an average of 18 minutes and were easily distracted
Children ages 5 to 6 often persisted for 1 hour or more
Improvements in sustained attention occur from ages 5-6 to ages 8-9 as the parts of the brain involved with attention become further myelinated
Beyond ages 8-9, there is little increase in the length of children’s sustained attention
But become more accurate on tasks requiring sustained attention over the next few years

35. The Child – More Selective and Systematic Attention
Infants are not good at selective attention – deliberately concentrating on one thing while ignoring something else
Significant increase in focused attention between 3½ and 4 years
However, distractions will interfere with completion of tasks
In a research study (Vurpillot, 1968), children aged 4-5 were not systematic in a visual search, but most children older than 6 were very systematic
Improvements in visual search continue to be made throughout childhood and into early adulthood

36. The Child – Problems of Attention
Attention deficit disorder (ADHD) is characterized by three symptoms
Inattention
Does not seem to listen, is easily distracted, has trouble following instructions, does not complete tasks, tends to be forgetful and unorganized
Impulsivity
Acts before thinking and cannot inhibit urges to blurt or to take a turn
Hyperactivity
Restless and fidgety

37. The Child – Problems of Attention
Between 5-9% of school-age children meet the diagnostic criteria for ADHD
Twice as many boys as girls seem to have ADHD
Girls may be under diagnosed
Because hyperactivity is more easily observable, children with predominantly hyperactivity/
impulsivity symptoms are diagnosed around age 8
Children with predominantly inattention symptoms are diagnosed two years later
The inattentive subtype of ADHD is roughly twice as common as the hyperactive-impulsive subtype

38. The Child – Developmental Course of ADHD
When the predominant symptom is hyperactivity/impulsivity, infants are very active and have difficult temperaments and irregular feeding and sleeping patterns
Preschoolers must be evaluated in relation to developmental norms for activity levels
By the grade-school years, children with ADHD are fidgety, restless, and inattentive to schoolwork

39. The Child – Developmental Course of ADHD
An estimated 20% of ADHD children outgrow their overactive behavior
Adolescents with ADHD continue to have difficulty concentrating on school work and often perform poorly in school or drop out, and behave impulsively
In early adulthood, individuals with ADHD have lapses of concentration, procrastinate, and make impulsive decisions
The more severe the ADHD and associated problems such as aggression in childhood, the more likely it is that later life outcomes will be poor

40. The Child – Suspected Causes of ADHD
ADHD possibly results from deficiencies in executive functions controlled by the frontal lobes of the brain
Difficulty in inhibiting and regulation behavior
Low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine may be the cause of executive function impairments
Genes predispose some individuals to develop ADHD
Environmental factors may influence whether a genetic predisposition develops into ADHD and whether the individual adapts well or poorly
ADHD possibly results from deficiencies in executive functions controlled by the frontal lobes of the brain.
Difficulty in inhibiting and regulation behavior
Low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine may be the cause of executive function impairments
Genes predispose some individuals to develop ADHD.
-One identical twin is highly likely to have it if the other does, and first-degree relatives of someone with ADHD (including parents) have four to five times the usual risk.
-Genes account for 60 to 90% of the variation in ADHD among individuals, and nonshared environmental factors account for the rest.
-There is not one ADHD gene - researchers have identified several gene variants common in individuals with ADHD that influence levels of dopamine, serotonin, and other relevant neurotransmitters in their brains
Environmental factors may influence whether a genetic predisposition develops into ADHD and whether the individual adapts well or poorly.

41. The Child – Treatment of ADHD
Many children with ADHD are treated with stimulant drugs (i.e., Ritalin) in order to increase levels of dopamine and facilitate attention
Controversy about possible overprescription of stimulants and about side effects
Results of a multimodal treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder study (MTA): medication alone was more effective than behavioral treatment alone or routine care in reducing ADHD symptoms
Many children with ADHD are treated with stimulant drugs (i.e., Ritalin) in order to increase levels of dopamine and facilitate attention.
Controversy about possible overprescription of stimulants and about side effects.
Results of the Multimodal Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Study (MTA): Medication alone was more effective than behavioral treatment alone or routine care in reducing ADHD symptoms.
--A combination of medication and behavioral treatment was superior to medication alone when the goal was defined as not only reducing ADHD symptoms but also improving academic performance, social adjustment, and parent–child relations.

42. Learning Objectives
How does the capacity for attention change during adolescence?
How can hearing loss be minimized across the lifespan, beginning with adolescence?
What changes occur in visual capabilities and visual perception during adulthood?
What changes in auditory capabilities and speech perception occur during adulthood?
What changes occur in taste and smell, and in sensitivity to touch, temperature, and pain during adulthood?

43. The Adolescent – Attention
The ability to sustain attention improves considerably between childhood and adulthood
Result of increased myelination that speeds up transmission of neural impulses
Adolescents are more efficient at ignoring distractions in order to concentrate
Adolescents can divide their attention systematically between two tasks

44. The Adolescent – Hearing
Exposure to sounds above 75 decibels can result in hearing loss
Rock concerts and club music – 120 to 130 decibels
Most common outcome is tinnitus – ringing sounds in one or both ears
Teens do not believe that hearing loss is a serious health concern for them
Hearing protection is not cool

46. The Adolescent – Taste and Smell
Changes in taste during adolescence
Slight decline in preference for sweets and an increased sensitivity to sour tastes
Adolescents are more likely to have an acquired taste for previously disliked or avoided foods
Sense of smell in adolescence
Women generally demonstrate greater sensitivity than men to a variety of odors (including body odor)

47. The Adult
Sensory and perceptual capacities decline gradually in normal adults
Declines may begin in early adulthood, become noticeable in 40s, and are typical by age 65 and older
Typically we can compensate for the deficits
Losses take two forms
Sensory thresholds are higher
Sensitivity to very low levels of stimulation is lost
Perceptual abilities decline in some aging adults
Difficulty in processing or interpreting sensory information

49. Aging brings changes to all components of the visual system
The Adult – Vision
Aging brings changes to all components of the visual system – pupils, lens, and retina
Pupils become smaller and do not respond as much when lighting conditions change
Sharp drop in visual acuity when contrast is poor and light levels are low
Dark adaptation occurs more slowly
The lens becomes denser and less flexible
Cannot accommodate to bring objects at different differences into focus
Thickening of the lens results in presbyopia, decreased ability to accommodate objects close to the eye
Aging brings changes to all components of the visual system
Pupils become smaller and do not respond as much when lighting conditions change.
Sharp drop in visual acuity when contrast is poor and light levels are low.
--When contrast is poor, and especially when poor contrast is combined with low light levels, the drop in visual acuity is sharper, which explains why older adults often have difficulty reading menus in restaurants with dim lighting.
Dark adaptation occurs more slowly.
--The older person driving at night may have special problems when turning onto a dark road from a lighted highway.
The lens becomes denser and less flexible.
Cannot accommodate to bring objects at different differences into focus.
Thickening of the lens results in presbyopia, decreased ability to accommodate objects close to the eye.
--An adult may compensate for this decline by gradually moving newspapers and books farther from the eye to make them clearer.

50. Caption: Visual acuity of older adults under optimal (high contrast and bright light), average (low contrast and bright light), and poor (low contrast and low light) stimulus conditions

51. The Adult – Vision The effects of age-related changes in the lens
Visual acuity steadily declines in old age, but typically the implications are minor
In one major study, three out of four older adults (75 years and older) had good corrected vision
Women experience greater declines in visual acuity than men and become susceptible to falls, fractures, and loss of independence
Non-corrected poor visual acuity (20/40 or worse) is an impairment that reduces older adults’ quality of life

52. The Adult – Vision
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) results from damage to retinal cells responsible for central vision
Vision becomes blurry and begins to fade from the center of the visual field – blank or dark space in the center of the image
Leading cause of blindness in older adults
Causes are unknown and there is no cure

53. The Adult – Vision
Changes in the retina also lead to decreased visual field or loss of peripheral vision
Loss of peripheral vision leads to tunnel vision, caused by retinitis pigmentosa (RP) or by glaucoma
Retinitis pigmentosa is a group of hereditary disorders that involve gradual deterioration of the light-sensitive cells of the retina
Glaucoma is caused by increased fluid pressure in the eye that can damage the optic nerve, cause loss of peripheral vision, and lead to blindness

54. Caption: How a scene might be viewed by someone with various eye conditions: A) cataracts, B) glaucoma, (C diabetes retinopathy, D) age-related macular degeneration, and E) retinitis pigmentosa

55. The Adult – Attention and Visual Search
Older adults are less able to divide attention between two tasks or to selectively attend to stimuli while ignoring distractors
Older adults have the greatest difficulties in processing visual information when the situation is novel (when they are not sure exactly what to look for or where to look) and when it is complex (there are many distractions)

56. The Adult – Hearing
Among older adults, hearing impairments are three times as prevalent as visual impairments
Among adults aged 65 and older, as many as 90% have mildly impaired hearing that progressively worsens with age
Most age-related hearing problems originate in the inner ear
Auditory receptors and hearing-related structures and neurons degenerate during adulthood and result in presbycusis

57. The Adult – Hearing
The most common form of presbycusis is loss of sensitivity to high-frequency or high-pitched sounds
Results in difficulty hearing a child’s high voice, the flutes in an orchestra, or high-frequency consonant sounds such as s, z, and ch
After age 50, it also becomes difficult to hear lower-frequency sounds
To be heard by an average older adult, a sound must be louder than the level needed by a younger adult
Men show detectable hearing losses earlier in life than women and lose hearing sensitivity at a faster rate than women
Men who work in noisy industrial conditions experience more hearing loss than other men

58. The Adult – Speech Perception
Speech perception is dependent on the ability to hear and upon cognitive processes such as attention and memory
To understand conversation,
Listening conditions are important; background noise is problematic
Increased attentional demands (divided attention) are problematic
Auditory perception is more difficult when the tasks are novel and complex, and the listening conditions are poor
Familiar conditions allow use of contextual cues

59. The Adult – Aging of the Chemical Senses
General decline in sensitivity to taste
Older men have somewhat greater decline than older women
But great variability in individual experiences
Ability to perceive odors typically declines with age
Health adults retain their sense of smell better than those have diseases, smoke, or take medications

60. The Adult – Touch, Temperature, and Pain
Sensitivity for touch is gradually lost from middle childhood, but may not have implications for daily life
Older people may be less sensitive to changes in temperature than younger adults
Compared to younger adults, older adults appear to be less sensitive to weak levels of pain but are not less sensitive to stronger pain stimuli
Older adults are more likely to experience chronic pain than younger adults, but are less likely to obtain adequate pain relief
Treating painful conditions and providing effective pain relief could improve the daily functioning and psychological well-being of older adults

61. The Adult in Perspective
During adulthood, changes in sensation and perception of visual and auditory capacities are the most important and the most universal
Senses become less sharp and are used less effectively
Many sensory declines can be compensated
Older adults with two or more sensory impairments are likely to experience difficulty with basic tasks of living
Usually have physical or intellectual impairments, too, probably due to general declines in neural functioning that affect both perception and cognition
However, most older adults, even those with sensory impairments, are engaged in a range of activities and are living full lives