1. The Dual Revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries
The French and Industrial Revolutions and their aftermath

2. The French Revolution

3. The Revolutionary Ideas
The writers of the Enlightenment proposed that governments are bound to the will of the people.

4. Liberty The notion of individual human rights
A new type of government in which the people are sovereign
The importance of a representative assembly
The importance of a written constitution
The notion of self-determination
Freedom to accumulate property

5. Equality Equality of rights and civil liberties
Equality before the law
No special privileges for the rich
Equality of opportunity
“Careers Open to Talent”
Inherent tension between liberty and equality

6. “The Atlantic Revolution”
French Revolution was a part of a whole series of revolutions which took place during the late 18th century
--Political agitation in England, Ireland, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland and the North and South American colonies
One big movement of revolutionary agitation that continues well into the 19th c.

7. The American Revolution
After the Seven Years War with France, the American colonists grew increasingly frustrated with British control and taxes.
(Sugar Act, 1764; Stamp Act, 1765; Townsend Act, 1767, Tea Act, 1773)
The main slogan of the colonists was “No taxation without representation”
1774. First Continental Congress
1775 Battles at Lexington and Concord
July 4, 1776: The Declaration of Independence – “All Men are Created Equal.” Influenced by ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment.
The main author was Thomas Jefferson.
American victory made possible by military support from France and the Netherlands.
1783 Peace of Paris
The significance of the American constitution (1787)
The influence of the American Revolution on revolutions throughout the world

8. The Declaration of Independence July 4, 1776
When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

9. The Bill of Rights- first 10 amendments to the U. S
The Bill of Rights- first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791
Amendment I: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Amendment II: A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.
Amendment III: No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
Amendment IV: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
Amendment V: No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
Amendment VI: In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.
Amendment VII: In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
Amendment VIII: Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
Amendment IX: The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
Amendment X: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

10. The French Revolution
More fundamental and profound consequences than the American Revolution and the revolutions in Latin America
France = most powerful and populous state in Europe
Massive social revolution
Worldwide impact
Becomes model for future revolutions

11. How Should We Look at the French Revolution?
“Series of revolutions which became more radical as leadership cascaded down through French society.”

12. Background to the French Revolution
The ideas of the Enlightenment: Locke, Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued in his Social Contract, that the sovereign voice of government was the members of society acting collectively (“popular sovereignty”).
The burdens on the French peasantry: tithes to the church; taxes to the State and to wealthy landlords; the corvee—unpaid labor services; the salt monopoly
Grievances of the bourgeoisie
Grievances of the urban poor

13. The Events of the French Revolution
Watch for the different revolutions within the Revolution!

14. The Origins The financial crisis of Louis XVI’s government
The initial cause of what became the French revolution was a staggering national debt.
Began as a revolt of the aristocracy
Attempt to capitalize on the financial woes of the monarchy
Only solution = tax reform and a direct tax on all property
Aristocracy refused and forces the king to convene the Estates-General.

15. The Estates-General An old feudal assembly that had not met since 1614
Three Estates: Clergy, Nobility, All Others
1788 the cahiers des doleances
The miscalculation and lack of social awareness of the aristocracy

16. The Third Estate Who were they?
Third Estate was dominated by the middle class
Blending of aristocratic and bourgeois classes by 1789
Middle class = Big Winners
Revolutionary goals of the middle class

17. The Revolt of the Third Estate
On June 17, 1789, the representatives of the Third Estate met on the royal te3nnis court.
They declared themselves to be the National Assembly and invited members of the other Estates to join them.
They took the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disband until they had provided France with a Constitution

18. “Revolutionaries in the Streets”
Who were they?
“Sans-culottes” (without knee britches)
Picked up the ideas and slogans of the Revolution from the more educated leadership of lawyers and journalists

19. What were the Motivations of these Revolutionaries?
Poverty and Hunger
Low wages and fear of unemployment
Heightened expectations and the exposure to a political perspective
-- “Cahiers”
Strong dislike for and distrust of the wealthy
The role of conspiracy

20. The Storming the Bastille: July 14, 1789
Reasons for the attack on the Bastille on the morning of July 14
The stubbornness of the governor of the fortress
Celebrations on the night of July 14th
Sparks tremendous popular revolution all over France

21. “The Great Fear”
Independent revolutionary agitation in the countryside
Rumors of Royalist troops becoming wandering vandals
Fear breeds fear and peasants start marching
Within 3 weeks of July 14, the countryside of France had been completely changed
Abolition of the Nobility

22. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen August 26, 1789
The representatives of the French people, organized as a National Assembly, believing that the ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the rights of man are the sole cause of public calamities and of the corruption of governments, have determined to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural, unalienable, and sacred rights of man, in order that this declaration, being constantly before all the members of the Social body, shall remind them continually of their rights and duties; in order that the acts of the legislative power, as well as those of the executive power, may be compared at any moment with the objects and purposes of all political institutions and may thus be more respected, and, lastly, in order that the grievances of the citizens, based hereafter upon simple and incontestable principles, shall tend to the maintenance of the constitution and redound to the happiness of all. Therefore the National Assembly recognizes and proclaims, in the presence and under the auspices of the Supreme Being, the following rights of man and of the citizen:Articles:1.  Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.2.  The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.3.  The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.4.  Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.5.  Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.6.  Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents.7.  No person shall be accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense.8.  The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary, and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense.9.  As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty, if arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by law.10.  No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law.11.  The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.12.  The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are, therefore, established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be intrusted.13.  A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means.14.  All the citizens have a right to decide, either personally or by their representatives, as to the necessity of the public contribution; to grant this freely; to know to what uses it is put; and to fix the proportion, the mode of assessment and of collection and the duration of the taxes.15.  Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration.16.  A society in which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all.17.  Since property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity, legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified.

23. Women in the Age of Revolution
Olympe de Gouges 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen
"Woman is born free and lives equal to man in her rights.
The laws must be the expression of the general will; all female and male citizens must contribute either personally or through their representatives to its formation; it must be the same for all: male and female citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, must be equally admitted to all honors, positions, and public employment according to their capacity and without other distinctions besides those of their virtues and talents.
Mary Wollstonecraft 1792 A Vindication of the Rights of Women
It is hardly surprising that women concentrate on the way they look instead of what is in their minds since not much has been put in their minds to begin with.
I do not wish [women] to have power over men; but over themselves.
Contending for the rights of women, my main argument is built on this simple principle, that if she be not prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its influence on general practice.

24. Women take the Lead!
Mounting unemployment and hunger in Paris in the fall of 1789
“October Days”: The March to Versailles
-- “The point is that we want bread!”
The Royal Family returns to Paris on October 6, 1789

25. The Consolidation of the Liberal Revolution
Between 1789 and 1791, the National Assembly made great changes in French society.
The old social order was abolished.
Abolition of the French nobility as a legal order
Constitutional Monarchy established
Economic centralization
Nationalization of the Church
Voting rights restricted to males with property.
The Church and most aristocrats opposed these changes and the stage was set for civil war.

26. The Jacobins
The Jacobins, a radical political group, wanted to abolish the monarchy and remake French society as a whole.
Their guiding principles were summed up in the phrase “liberty, equality and fraternity.”
After Louis XVI is caught trying to flee France, they become the dominant party in the national Assembly.
The King was placed under house arrest.
The Revolutionary Leaders,-Marat, Danton, Robespierre- called for a complete reorganizing of French political, social and cultural structures.
In September, 1792, a new legislative body, the Convention, was elected by universal manhood suffrage (for the first time in world history!).
Under the leadership of the radical lawyer, Maximilien Robespierre (The “Incorruptible”) the Convention ( ) was the most radical period of the French Revolution.

27. The Radical Revolution
1792-3, France went to war against Austria , Prussia, Spain, Britain, and the Netherlands.
The levee en masse (draft) was instituted to raise a large army to repel invasion (the Marseillaise)
The monarchy is abolished and France is declared a Republic.
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are tried for treason and beheaded by guillotine.
All titles are abolished and replaced with “citizen”.
The radicals attempt to replace the Catholic Church with a “religion of reason.”

28. Robespierre’s Reign of Terror
The Committee of Public Safety
The Concept of “Total War”
Maximum price ceilings on certain goods
Nationalization of Small Workshops

29. The Reign of Terror (cont)
Execution of 40,000 “Enemies of the Nation”
Stress on radical definition of equality
Wanted a legal maximum on personal wealth
Wanted a regulation of commercial profits
End of Robespierre’s dictatorship on July 28, 1794

30. The Rise and Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte
During the rule of the Directory ( ), the French Revolution moved in a more conservative direction
Napoleon Bonaparte ( ), a General at age 24, won impressive victories that made him popular with the French public.
In 1799, in a “coup d’etat”, he overthrew the Directory, imposed a new constitution and ruled France as “first consul”.
In 1801 he crowned himself Emperor.
Napoleon championed equality under the law, but not political freedom.
The Napoleonic Code confirmed the reforms of the National Assembly but placed women under the patriarchal authority of males.
Reconciliation with the Catholic Church --Concordat of 1801
Heavy Censorship of the press

31. The Napoleonic Empire
With the largest army in Europe, Napoleon embarked on wars of conquest.
At its peak in 1812, the Empire included the Netherlands, Spain, Northern Italy and Poland.
Napoleon’s downfall was precipitated by a disastrous attempt to conquer Russia in 1812, which destroyed most of his army.
A coalition of European armies marched on France and Napoleon was forced into exile on the island of Elba in 1814.
He escaped in 1815 and ruled France for 100 days before he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
He died in 1821 in exile on the South Atlantic island of St. Helena.

32. Legacies of the French Revolution
A revolutionary model
A mass political consciousness
Inspires revolutionary movements in Haiti and South America.
Inspires nationalist movements—unification of Italy (1867) and Germany (1871)
Conflict within the Liberal Tradition: “Libertarianism” vs. “Egalitarianism”

33. Background of Haitian Revolution
Treaty of Ryswick (1697): Spain cedes Western third of Hispaniola to France
From 1697 to 1789, Saint Domingue becomes the richest colony in the world based on slave produced sugar, coffee indigo dye, cotton, tobacco and exotic spices
The plantation system on S.D. was the most brutal the world had ever seen.

34. 1791: The structure of Saint Domingue society
20,000 whites (Planters and Petit Blancs)
50,000 “free people of color” (affranchis)
500,000 African slaves (most born in Africa)
10,000 to 20,000 Maroons (runaway slaves) living in the mountains.

35. Impact of American and French Revolutions on Saint Domingue
500 gens de couleur (affranchis) serve in French army and participate in the American Revolution. Bring revolutionary ideas back to S.D.
The planters want an independent S.D. that they can control without interference from Paris.
The petit blancs are the only group loyal to France; hostile to the free persons of color and want to retain slavery.
The affranchis want a free Saint Domingue—with slavery- and equal rights with the whites.
The slaves want only one thing—freedom!

36. The Haitian Revolution Begins
August 21, 1791: revolt of the slaves on the northern plain.
More than a thousand planters and their families killed
Whites and affranchis unite to put down the rebellion

37. Francois-DominiqueToussaint (L’Ouverture) 1744-1803
Former slave, 47 years old, joins rebels as a medical officer
Rises to become a general and the leader of the revolution
To get rid of French he allies with the English and Spanish

38. Toussaint L’Ouverture
In 1793, the National Assembly in France abolishes slavery.
Sonthanax, the French representative in S.D. issues proclamation ending slavery.
In 1794, Toussaint joins the French side as . a brigadier general
He defeats the Spanish and English and conquers the whole island of Hispaniola by 1801
July 26, 1801: Toussaint’s Constitution

39. Napoleon Intervenes
Napoleon wants to take power back from “the gilded African”
1802: General Laclerc lands at Cap Francois
Toussaint betrayed, arrested and sent to France—dies in prison in April 1803.

40. The Republic of Haiti
Henri Christophe and Jean Jacques Dessalines continue war.
French surrender in November 1803.
Napoleon, disgusted at the cost of colonial wars, sells Louisiana to the U.S.
January 1, 1804: Dessalines proclaims the independence of Haiti

41. The problems of independence
A devastated economy: Former slaves refuse to return to plantation labor. Do not produce for export.
International boycott against trade with Haiti
Haitian independence recognized by France in 1825; England in 1833; the United States in 1862!!!
The affranchis form a Haitian ruling class.
Between , a succession of 20 rulers; 16 overthrown by revolution or assassination.
United States military occupation of Haiti ( )

42. Revolutions in Mexico and Central and South America
Led by wealthy Creole class
Goal: Independence from Spanish and Portuguese rule
Simon Bolivar, the father of Latin American independence: led revolts in Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador and Peru
Bolivar cooperated with Jose de San Martin and Bernardo O’Higgins in successful revolts in Argentina and Chile
Bolivar’s goal “a United Sates of South America”
By 1825 Spanish rule ended in South America
1822 Independence of Brazil under Emperor Pedro I
1821 End of Spanish rule in Mexico and Central America
Continued dominance of the white Creole elites

43. The Industrial Revolution
Economic, Political and Social Change

44. Definition
The process of change from an agrarian and handicraft based economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture
Arnold Toynbee first used the term to describe developments in England from 1760 to 1840.

45. Mechanization
During the first half of the 19th century, the European manufacturing process shifted from small-scale production by hand at home to large-scale production by machine in a factory setting.

46. Why England? “Britannia rules the waves”
Profitable agriculture—Enclosure movement
Coal and iron in Lancashire and Yorkshire
Money to risk on innovation from profits of the colonial empire and slavery
The colonies supply raw materials (cotton, sugar) and also serve as a market for the products of the factories (English cotton cloth destroys the domestic textile industry in India.

47. Characteristics of the I.R.
Starts in English cotton textile industry.
New machines increase production with less human energy.
The spinning jenny, power loom, etc. are first powered by water power, then b y the steam engine, using coal as a fuel.
New organization of work, the “FACTORY SYSTEM”, based on the division of labor and the specialization of function.
Improvements in transportation—canals, roads, steam locomotive and steamship.
Application of applied science to industry: engineering, chemistry

48. Industrial Revolution
New Inventions
of the
Industrial Revolution

49. John Kay’s “Flying Shuttle”-1730’s –mechanization of weaving

50. 1765 James Hargreaves – the Spinning Jenny
First invention to improve on the spinning wheel
Could be located in homes of spinners (spinsters)
Vital to the domestic or “putting out” system of cloth production

51. Richard Arkwright: “Pioneer of the Factory System”
The “Water Frame” 1769

52. 1785: Edmund Cartwright - The Power Loom

53. 1765: James Watt – the Steam Engine
Most important invention of the I.R.
Coal powered-heats water to create steam that forces piston to turn a wheel.
1,000 engines in use by 1800
Applied to transportation technology

54. Steam Ship

55. An Early Steam Locomotive

56. Factory Production
Concentrates production in one place [materials, machines, labor].
Located near sources of power [rather than labor or markets].
Requires a lot of capital investment [factory, machines, etc.] more than skilled labor.
Only 10% of English industry in

57. The Factory System Rigid schedule. 12-14 hour day, six days a week.
Dangerous conditions.
Mind-numbing monotony.

58. At the Expense of Workers
The shift meant high quality products at competitive prices, but often at the expense of workers. For example, the raw wool and cotton that fed the British textile mills came from:
Lands converted from farming to sheep raising, leaving farm workers without jobs
The southern plantations of the United States, which were dependent upon slave labor

59. Textile Factory Workers in England
1813
2400 looms
150, 000 workers
1833
85, 000 looms
200, 000 workers
1850
224, 000 looms
>1 million workers

60. CHILD LABOR IN MINES AND FACTORIES
In 1788, two thirds of the workers in English textile mills were children.
They worked up to 14 hours a day in dangerous and unsanitary conditions.
Poor families could not survive if their children were not employed.
Factory Act of 1833 limits hours of work and forbids employment under the age of nine.
Ages hours a day
Ages hours a day

61. Child Labor in factories and Mines

62. 1850: Population Living in Cities
Urban Growth
Those who could no longer make a living on the land migrated from the countryside to the cities to seek work in the factories.
1850: Population Living in Cities

63. Population Growth
At the same time, the population of Europe continued to grow.

64. The Plight of the Cities
The sheer number of human beings put pressure on city resources:
Housing, water, sewers, food supplies, and lighting were completely inadequate.
Slums grew and disease, especially cholera, ravaged the population.
Crime increased and became a way of life for those who could make a living in no other way.

65. Conditions in the Countryside
The only successful farmers were those with large landholdings who could afford agricultural innovations.
Most peasants:
Didn’t have enough land to support themselves
Were devastated by poor harvests (e.g., the Irish Potato Famine of )
Were forced to move to the cities to find work in the factories.

66. The Role of the Railroads
The railroads, built during the 1830s and 1840s:
Enabled people to leave the place of their birth and migrate easily to the cities.
Allowed cheaper and more rapid transport of raw materials and finished products.
Created an increased demand for iron and steel and a skilled labor force.

67. The Labor Force
No single description could include all of these 19th century workers:
Factory workers
Urban artisans
Domestic system craftsmen
Household servants
Miners
Countryside peddlers
Farm workers
Railroad workers
Variations in duties, income, and working conditions made it difficult for them to unite.

68. The Condition of Labor
All working people, however, faced possible unemployment, with little or no provision for security.
In addition, they were subject to various kinds of discipline:
The closing of factory gates to late workers
Fines for tardiness
Dismissal for drunkenness
Public censure for poor quality workmanship
Beatings for non-submissiveness

69. Proletarianization
Factory workers lose control of the means of production
Factory owners provide the financial capital to construct factory and purchase machines and raw materials
Factory workers can only exchange their labor for wages

70. “Upstairs”/“Downstairs” Life

71. Industrial Staffordshire

72. Worker Resistance
The Luddites: Craftsman destroy the new textile machines
1819 “Peterloo” massacre: Troops fire on workers demonstrating in Manchester
The Chartist Movement: 3 million sign the People’s Charter, which called for universal manhood suffrage and the secret ballot
Trade unions were illegal

73. Family Structures Changed
With the decline of the domestic system and the rise of the factory system, family life changed.
At first, the entire family, including the children, worked in the factory, just as they had at home.
Later, family life became fragmented (the father worked in the factory, the mother handled domestic chores, the children went to school).

74. Family as a Unit of Consumption
In short, the European family changed from being a unit of production and consumption to being a unit of consumption alone.

75. Gender-Determined Roles
That transformation prepared the way for gender-determined roles.
Women came to be associated with domestic duties, such as housekeeping, food preparation, child rearing and nurturing, and household management.
The man came to be associated almost exclusively with breadwinning.

76. Political and social changes
Decline in the importance of the aristocracy.
Rise in power of the “Bourgeoisie”
Liberalism becomes the dominant ideology of the middle classes
Working class organizes in labor unions and socialist parties based on the ideas of Karl Marx (1848 The Communist Manifesto)

77. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels The Communist Manifesto 1848
History has a direction—it moves along through necessary stages
History is moved along by changes in the economic life of each society—the mode of production and exchange
History is moved along by class struggle—a struggle between dominant and the subordinate social classes
In the industrial era, the struggle is between the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers who only own their own labor)
The Communist Revolution will destroy capitalism and the class system.